THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


GIFT  OF 
Mrs.  Domenico  Saudino 


20^ 


m. 


NATURE  DISPLAYED. 


NATURE  DISPLAYED, 


IN  HER  MODE 


TEACHING  LANGUAGE  XO.  MAN  ;  ^^^-^ 

OH,    ^^^ ^      _, — —      '  '       . 

.:r  A-^IF  ^A'Z>  mFALLTBLE  METHOD 


J^CQUIRItfG   A   LANGUAGE    IN    THE     SHORTEST    TIME   POSSIBLi-., 

•DEDUCED  FROM   THE   ANALYSIS  OF  THE   HUMAN   MIND, 

AXD 

C^NSEQUENtLr   SUITED    TO    EVERT  CAPACIfl'. 

ADAPTED  TO  THE  FRENCH. 


BY  N.  G.  DUFIEF, 

OF   PHILADELPHIA. 


Languages  were  not  made  by  rules  or  art,  but  by  accident,  and  the 
common  use  of  the  people.  -  locke. 

II  y  a  eu  des  poetes  &  des  orateurs,  avant  qu'  on  imaginat  de  faire  des 
grammaues,  des  poetiques  &  des  rhetoriques.  condillac. 

On  ne  peut  apprendre  la  grammaire  d*  une  langue  quelconque,  m6rae 
i.'ell«i  de  son  pays,  que  quand  on  sait  parler,  que  quand  on  sait  causer. 

SIC^\UD. 


VOL.  II. 

COXTAINING 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  LANGUAGE,  AND 
SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

PRINTED    BY    THOMAS    S.  ilAXNING, 

FOR    THE    AUTHOR,    NO.  47,    NORTH    THIRD    STREET. 


1804. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


SECTION  THE  FIRST. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  LANGUAGE, 

Conversations.  pack. 

I.              Of  Words 1 

Sounds  of  the  Vowels ^ 

of  the  Diphthongs •     .     •     .  8 

of  the  Consonants 9 

XL             OftheNoim 11 

Notes  on  the  Noun 20 

III.  Of  the  Adjective  and  Abstract  Noun 25 

Note  on  the  Adjective 35 

IV.  Of  the  Article 38 

Note  on  the  Article 45 

V.  Of  other  Articles 47 

VI.  Of  Pronouns 54 

Note  on  the  Origin  of  Pronouns 64 

VII.  Of  Nouns,  generally  received  as  Pronouns.      ...  65 

VIII.  Of  the  Verb 67 

Necessity  and  Origin  of  the  Verb 73 

Formation  of  the  Elliptical  or  Adjective  Verbs.       .      .  74 

IX.  Of  Moods  and  Tenses 76 

Conjugation  of  the  Auxiliary  Verb  Avoir ^  to  have.  .  82 
of  the  Abstract  and  Auxiliary  Verb  Etre^. 

to  be 108 

EIGHT  REGULAR  CONJUGATIONS. 

1st.  In  er  exemplified  in  Porter,  to  carry.  .  .  .  117 
Conjugation   of  the   Ifefective  Verbs,  exemplified  in 

5"  habiller,  to  dress  one's  self.  ....  120 
A   List   of  Verbs   reflective   in  French,   and  not  in 

English 133 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  Alter,  to  go.         .         .         .  134 

< of  Qeler^  to  freeze 138 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Conversations. 
IX. 


X. 
XI. 


XII. 
XIII 
XIV. 


XV. 


2d.  In  ir,  exemplified  in  Puntr,  to  punish.     .         .      .  140 

3d.  In  tir,  vir,  or  7nir,  exemplified  in  Sentirf  to  feel.  144 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Sentir 147 

4th.  In  enir,  exemplified  in  Tenir,  to  hold.         .          .  148 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Tenir 151 

5th.  In  evoir,  exemplified  in  JRecevoir,  to  receive.      .  153 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Recevoir 156 

Conjugation  of  the  Irregular  Verb  Falloir,  to  be  neces- 
sary   156 

6th.  In  re,  exemplified  in  Vendre,  to  sell.         .         .  158 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Vendre 161 

7th.  In  Uire,  exemplified  in  Traduire,  to  translate.  163 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Traduire 166 

8th.  In  Indre,  exemplified  in  Craindre,  to  fear.         .  167 

EIGHT  CLASSES  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

1st.  As  Offrir,  to  offer 172 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Offrir ib. 

2d,  As  Courir,  to  run.          .         .                 ...  173 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Courir 174 

3d.  As  ConnaitrCy  to  know.           ....  ib. 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Connaitre.            .         .  175 

4th.  As  Mettre  to  put 176' 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Mettre.          .  ■      .         .         .  ib. 

5th.  As  Prendre,  to  take.         .....  177 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Prendre.          ....  178 

6th.  As  Faire,  to  do,  or  to  make ib. 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Faire 179 

7th.  As  Ecrire,  to  write. 180 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Ecrire ib. 

8th.  As  Dire,  to  say,  or  to  tell 181 

Verbs  Conjugated  like  Dire.          .         .         .         .  182 

Irregular  Verbs  that  could  not  be  classed.           .          .  ib. 

A  Table  of  the  Terminations  of  every  French  Verb.  190 

Final  Remarks  on  the  French  Conjugation.       .         .  191 

Of  Prepositions.         .......  195 

An   Alphabetical  Table  of  Relations,  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  Prepositions 201 

Of  the  Adverb 208 

Of  the  Conjunction.              215 

Of  Elliptical  and  Combined  Conjunctions.         .          .  221 
Combined  Conjunctions  governing  the  Indicative,  ex- 
emplified   224 

Combined  Conjunctions  governing  the  Subjunctive.  227 

Of  the  Interjection.         ......  229 


Instructions. 
I. 
II. 


SECTION  THE  SECOND. 

Of  Svntax.         ......  .233 

Of  the  Article 235 

A  Table  of  French  Verbs,  immediately  followed  by- 
Nouns,  (which  are  their  Complement),  without 
being  connected  with  them,  by  an  Article  or  Pre- 
position.         254 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Instructions. 
III. 


IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 


XI. 
XII. 

XIII. 
XIV. 


XV. 


XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 


FACE, 

Of  the  Noun 267 

A  Table  of  Nouns,  whose  gender  varies  according  to 

their  number,  acceptation.  Sec.        .         .         .         280 

Of  the  Adjective  and  Numbers 291 

Of  the  Possessive  Articles 304 

Of  the  Demonstrative  Article,  Sec.  .         .         .       310 

Of  the  Conjunctive  Elliptical  words  ^i,  ^rue,  &c.       .     318 
Of  the  Elliptical  terms  ^i,  Lequel,  &c.         .         .         326 
Of  the  Active  Pronouns.  .....       331 

Of  the  Passive  Pronouns.  .         .         .         .         337 

A  Table  showing  the  union  of  Pronouns  and  Verbs,  in 

their  affirmative^  interrogative,  or  negati'ce  sense.      342 

Of  the  Disjunctive  Pronouns 343 

Of  the  use  of  the  Pronouns  ieur,  lui,  eux,  elle,  eiles,  se, 

lxii-7ne7ne,soi.         ......         348 

Of  some  Difficulties  in  the  French  language.       .       .     352 
On  the  use  of  the  tenses  and  their  correspondence  with  ^ 

each  other. ^3^2 

Indicative  mood.  ......     y 

On  the  Subjunctive.    Of  Adjectives,  Nouns,  and  Verbs, 
which  impose  the  Subjunctive  form  on  the  next 

Verb 368 

On  the  Complement  of  Verbs 377 

On  the  Infinitive 382 

Remarks  on  Complements.     .         .         .         .         .       391 

On  the  Participle />rt\yen< 394 

On  the  Declinability  or  Indeclinability  of  the;&a*«  Par- 
ticiple  397 

On  the  proper  choice  of  the  Auxiliary.  .         .        408 

On  the  Preposition 415 

On  the  Adverb 428 


SECTION  L 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  LANGUAGE. 

CONVERSATION  I. 

OF  WORDS. 


NirUBE   BEGINS REASON   COMPLEtSS. 


SCHOLAR. 

WHAT  are  words  ? 

MASTER. 

The  signs  of  onr  iHeas  and  thoughts  ;  that  is  to  say  they 
serve  to  represent  our  ideas  and  thoughts. 

SCHOLAR. 

What  do  you  call  an  idea  ? 

MASTER. 

The  image  or  representation  of  an  object  or  quality  in 
the  mind. 

SCHOLAR. 

How  are  objects  represented  in  the  mind  ? 

MASTER. 

By  the  Sensations  or  Impressions  f  they  make  on  any  of 
the  five  Senses,  or  Organs  which  the  wise  disposer  of 
all  things  bestowed  on  man,  to  enable  him  to  come  to  the 
knowledge  of  external  objects.  Those  Sensations  kept  up 
and  present  to   the    recollection,  are  ideas  ;  we    connect 


t  In  familiar  language  the  words  Impretsiont  and  Sensations  are  often  used 

as  synonymous  terms  ;  but  in  Metaphysics,  the  language  of  which  should  be 

that  of  precision  itself,  they  are  far  from  being  80  :  the  first  of  these  referring 

to  Matter  and    the  latter  to  Spirit.      Their  difference  may  be  seen   in  the 

following  Table,  which  also  contains  explanations  of  other  terms  often  used. 

IMPRESSION    ^  ^^  '^"^  change  in  the  human  body  by  the  action  of  some 

'  (.     external  object  on  the  organs  of  ft^nse. 

VOL.    II.  B 


2  PHILOSOPHY 

them  with  words  without  which,  ideas^  alternately  rising 
and  vanishing  on  the  mind^  WGidd  leave  no  more  vestige  on 
the  brain  than  the  transient  waves  of  a  flood  leave  on  the 
eye. 

SCHOLAR. 

What  difference  is  there  between  an  idea  and  a 
thought  ? 

MASTER. 

The  following  :  an  idea  is  merely,  as  we  have  said, 
the  representation  or  image  of  an  object^  as  that  expressed 
by  house^  garden^  &c. 

A  thought  is  an  idea  considered  under  certain  relations, 
as  a  large  house ^  a  beautif id  garden- 

SCHOLAR. 

What  are  words  composed  of  ? 


SENSATION 

An  IDEA 

ATTENTION 

COMPARISON 

JUDGMENT 
A  PROPOSITION 


REFLECTION 


REASONING 


5  Is  an  impression  received,  felt  and  known  by  the  Soul 
i     through  the  medium  of  some  of  the  senses. 


REASON 


C  Is  the  consciousness  of  an  impression  felt  or  past  kept 
\      up  by  recollection. 

Is  the  exclusive  consideration  of  an  object  or  idea. 
C  Isi  the  consideration  of  two  Ideas  or  things  in  order 
l^       to  discover  their  relations  to  each  other. 

Is  that  faculty  of  the  mind  whereby  the  agreement 
or  disagreement,  the  s uitableness  or  unsuitableness 
of  things,  or  ideas  is  perceived  after  the  consider- 
aiion  thereof. 
Is  the  manifestation  of  our  judgment  of  that  agree- 
ment or  disagreement,  suitableness  or  unsuita- 
bleness,  expressed  by  signs  appropriate  to  some- 
of  the  five  senses. 

tis  an  operation  of  the  mind  whereby  attention  is 
given  to  the  different  parts  of  on  object,  in  or- 
der to  obtain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  it,  or  to 
various  things  or  ideas,  in  order  to  compare  and 
judge  of  them  successively  ;  and  as  attention  is 
I  thus  refected  from  one  object,  or  from  one  idea 

I  to  another,  that  operation  has  been  properly 

L         denominated  Reflection. 

s  an  operation  of  the  mind  whereby  it  discovers  a 
judgment  contained  or  hidden  in  another  it 
had  previously  ma^e. 
Results  or  springs  from  the  operations  we  have 
just  noticed,  judiciously  directed  or  combined. 
No  man  can  be  said  to  possess  this  faculty  in 
the  highest  degree.  The  Phitosophers  that 
I  seem  to  have  approached  the   nearest    to  that 

I  perfection,  are  Hippocrates,    Archimedes,  iVhc- 

\^        ton,  Locke,  Montesquieu,  Condillac  andMuler* 


{ 


V 


I 


OF  LANGUAGE.  t 

MASTER. 

Of  sounds  in  Speech  and  of  letters  which  ore  written 
characters  when  they  represent  those  sounds  to  the  eye. 

The  useful  art  of  representing  Speech  in  written  cha- 
racters is  called  wr/^iwo-, the  invention  of  which  is  ascribed 
to  Cadmus  and  celebrated  by  Brebeuf  in  the  following 
beautiful  lines. 

<«  C*est  de  lui  que  nous  rient  cet  art  ingeaieux, 
"  Dc  peindre  la  parole  8c  de  parler  aux  yeux  ; 
**  Et  par  les  traits  divers  de  figures  tracee<;, 
«^  Donner  de  la  couleur  &  du  corps  aux  pens^es." 

The  following  version  will  not,  I  imagine,  be  unaccept- 
able to  the  English  reader. 

"  From  him  this  art  descriptive  took  its  rise, 
"  Of  holding  converse  with  the  wond'ring  eyes  ; 
<'  The  various  figures,  by  his  pencil  wrought, 
*'  Gave  colour  and  a  body  to  the  thought." 

Scholar. 
How  many  kinds  of  sounds  are  there  ? 

Master. 
Two  :  indrticidate  and  articulate  ;  the  former  are  so  call- 
ed from  their  formation  by  the  voice,  unassisted  by  the 
tongue  or  lips  ;  the  latter  are  formed  by  the  voice,  modified 
by  the  lips^  teeth^  throaty  tongue^  palate  or  nose.      The  first, 
are  also  called  voxucls^  the  second  consonants. 
Scholar. 
What  are  the  letters  called  which  represent  the  inarticu-^ 
late  sounds  ? 

Master. 
Foca/ letters,  or  simply,  vowels  ;  there  are  five  of  them, 
viz.  a,  f,  /,  0,  lu 

Scholar. 
What  are  those  termed,  which  describe  the  articulate  P 

Master. 
Consonants^  and  make  eighteen  in  number,  viz.  ^,  c,  d^fy 
gtj^  k.,  /,  ?n,  72,  p^  q^  r,  *,  f,  v^  x^  2.  They  are  called  conson- 
ants from  the  Latin  words  cww,  with,  zcad.  sonar e^to  sound, 
to  signify  the  necessity  of  their  junction  with  the  vowels,  to 
express  those  sounds,  which,  alone  they  could  not.  If  you 
add  to  the  foregoing  letters  the  consonant  h  to  denote  aspi- 


4  PHILOSOPHY 

ration,  and  the  letter  t/,  which  generally  describes  the  sound 
,  already  represented  by  /,  and  sometimes  by  /  /,  pronoun- 
ced as  rapidly  succeeding  each  other,  all  the  above  letters, 
twenty-five  in  number,  compose  our  French  Alphabet, 
in  which,  as  you  may  observe,  the  W  has  not  been  found 
necessary. 

Scholar. 

What  general  name  do  you  give  the  various  sounds 
which  constitute  a  word  ? 

Master. 

Syllables,  which,  like  the  Vowels  or  Consonants,  are  ex- 
pressed or  written.  / 
Scholar. 

Of  how  many  letters  is  a  written  Syllable  composed  ? 
Master. 

Sometimes  of  a  single  letter  only,  which  must  be  Vow- 
el ;  and  sometimes  of  several,  one  of  which  must  also 
be  a  Vowel. 

Scholar. 

Are  there  no  more  than  five  Vowels  f 
Master. 

No  :  but  there  should  be  many  more,  as  these  five  let- 
ters could  not  represent  all  the  sounds,  which  the  voice, 
not  modified  by  any  motion  of  the  Organ  of  Speech,  may 
utter  by  the  simple  emission  of  the  breath.  To  obviate  this 
difficulty,  we  have  recourse  to  various  means  to  express 
different  sounds,  without  resorting  to  additional  letters  or 
characters,  which  would  swell  our  Alphabet. 

First ;  we  use  three  Marks,  called  Accents,  placed  over 
the  Vowels,  to  render  their  sounds  more  or  less  forcible  : 
they  are  described  thus ;  acute  \  grave ^  '  and  circufTifiex 
".  Their  application  is  exemplified  in  the  following  words, 
«,  pate  ;  ^,  unite  j  e,  procf's  ;  <?,  tempete  ;  o,  cote  ;  f,  gfte  ; 
22,  flzlte. 

Secondly ;  we  combine  several  Vowels,  and  term  their 
combination  a  compound  Vowel ;  in  French  they  are  ten 
in  number;  as  ec;,  il  mangea  ;  ai^^ai;  ec/,  je  mange«/,-  aiiy 
ttau ;  eau^  ohw^eau  ;  eu^  heureux  ;  ceii^  vaii ;  eoy  geolier ; 
esy  a?sophage  ;  oii^  ouvrier.  I  must  observe  here,  as  imper- 
fection is  common  to  every  language^  an  imperfection  in  the 
French  Orthography  ;  which  is,  that  all  the  above  com- 
pound Vowels,  except  the  last,  describe  no  different  sounds 
from  those  before  represented  by  the  five  simple  Vowels 
with  or  without  accents. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  5 

Thirdly ;  to  express  the  simple  sounds  passing  through 
the  nose,  7n  or  n  is  subjoined  to  the  Vowels,  whether  slm' 
pie  or  compound^  and  this  subj  unction  is  termed  in  the  sin- 
gular a  Nasal,  and  in  the  plural  Nasals  ;  viz.  am,  Adam  ; 
an,  Qiiiant ;  aen,  Caen  ;  ean,  vengf a^zce  ;  em,  emplacement ; 
en,  <f7zsemble  ;  aim,  faim  ;  ain,  ^ain  ;  ein,  dessein  ,•  im,  im^ 
possible  ;  in,  eniin  ;  om,  sombre  ;  on,  coniondw  ;  eon,  man- 
^eons  ',  eun,  jeun  ;  um,  hz/mble  ;  un,  tribw/z.  The  same  im- 
perfection in  the  mode  of  representing  Vowels  by  com- 
pound Vowels  is  also  observable  here. 
Scholar. 

What  do  you  call  a  Diphthong  ? 
Master. 

The  distinct  sound  of  two  Vowels,  the  first  of  which  is 
nearly  lost  in  the  second :  this  double  sound  though  ex- 
pressed by  several  Vowels,  like  the  compound,  is  essentially 
different.  In  French  there  are  nineteen :  to  wit ;  six  sim- 
ple, as  ia^  in  diamant ;  it,  in  pit/V,-  to,  iio\^\  oe,  maclle; 
oi,  moi  ;  ui,  nw/t:  seven  compound,  as  iai,']t  coniiai  ;  iauy 
m/flwlement ;  ieii,  ndieii ;  ion,  ch/oz/rme  ;  oiia,roua^e  ;  ouai^ 
jejowfl/;  oui,  enfom  ;  and  six  nasals,  as  ian,via?idei  ien^ 
hien  ;  ion,  amhiff on  •  o/riy  soin  ;  ouin,  m^rsouin  ;  iiin,jiii?i. 

The  above  will  give  you  an  idea  of  the  mechanical  plan 
adopted  in  the  written  language  to  fix  the  fugitive  sounds 
of  the  voice.  I  might  indeed  have  dwelt  a  great  while  on 
the  subject,  and  have  written  almost  a  folio  on  the  num- 
berless irregularities  of  French  pronunciation,  complicated 
with  rules,  the  greater  part  of  which,  you  could  never  re- 
tain. 

Instead  of  incumbering  your  mind  with  unnecessary  mat- 
ter, I  will  lead  you  to  the  proper  French  pronunciation  by 
the  simple  and  easy  method  mentioned  in  my  preliminary 
discourse,  and  which  Nature  daily  displays  to  us.  And  in 
order  to  promote  that  object,  you  will  find  annexed  to  thig 
Conversation  three  comprehensive  Tables,  in  which  the 
pronunciation  ofthe  Vowels,  Diphthongs  and  Consonants  is 
exemplified  in  familiar  easy  words  which  you  will  pro- 
nounce daily  after  your  Master,  in  the  same  manner  with 
those  of  the  Practical  part,  till  you  become  familiar  with 
them.  You  will  not  proceed  to  the  second  Table,  till  yoii 
have  a  full  command  of  the  first,  to  obtain  which,  I  hope» 
will  not  require  more  than  three  attentive  readings. 


PHILOSOPHY 
TABLE  1. 

SOUNDS  OF  THE  VOWELS. 


Open  A, 

EXAMPLES. 

A.    Le  pflge  a  cache  mat  cage.    La  mascarade  a  fait  tapage. 


a. 


Broad  or  circumflex  a  is  pronounced  broad. 
Je  vous  blame  de  macher  du  platre.     Le  patre  est  au  paturage. 


Slender  or  acute  /  is  pronounced  by  keeping  the  teeth  almost  close.  So 
are  sounded  er,  ez,  ai,  in  the  final  syllabks  of  Verbs — oit  in  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  Present  anterior  of  the  Indicative  and  the  conditional  Present 
of  Verbs  spelt  after  the  old  Orthography. 

E.     Je  pr^frre  l^ete  le  th/  au  caf/.     II  a  bien  merite  de  la  societe. 
er.     II  faut  aimer,  chanter,  danser,  jouer,  8c  bien  s'amuser. 
cz.     Vous  zmez,  chanter,  danse^,  jcwez,  &,  vous  vous  amuses, 
ai.    J'aimera/,  je  chantera/,  danserof,  jouera?,  &  m'amuserar. 
oit.     II  disoit  8&  assifro/V  qu'il  liroiV,  causcro/f,  chanterof*  8c  danaeroif. 

Open  or  grave  e. — This  vowel  is  pronounced  strongly  and  by  opening  the 
mouth  widely  ;  in  the  same  manner  are  pronounced  ai  and  ei  in  the  first  and 
middle  syllables  of  words — et  in  final  syllables  of  words — e  not  accented 
but  followed  by  two  consonants  or  a  final  c,  jT,  /,  r,  w^hich  must  be  strongly 
pronounced. 

E.     J'admirais  le  bon  carac*#re  du  prre,  de  la  m#re  &  du  fr^re. 
ai.     Vrazment,  j'aime  a,  plazre.    Le  sala/re  d'une  va^'ne  gramma/re. 
ei.     La  veme  est  pleine.     II  demeure  a  I'ense/gne  du  peigne. 
et.     II  met  le  bidc^  du  cade<  dans  le  bosqut/. 
ett.  ess.  &c.     Sa  belle  dentelle  est  sur  sa  toi\ette.    Plus  de  sagewe  and  moins 

de  -prouesse. 
Final,  ec.  ef.  el.  er.     Ce  chef  Grec  maudit  du  ciel  est  en  enfer. 

Broad  or  circumflex  e : — This  Vowel  is  pronounced  still  more  openly  than 
the  e  :  one  must  therefore  lay  a  stress  upon  it  and  prolong  the  sound  there- 
of Ai,  aie,  ais,  aix,  and  ois,  oient  in  the  Present  anterior  of  the  Indicative 
and  the  conditional  Present  of  Verbs  spelt  after  the  old  Orthography  ,as  well 
as  e/s,  aits,  es,  are  pronounced  in  the  same  manner. 

E.     La  temptce  emprcha  la  conqucte.     Cette  fete  est  bien  brte.    EUe  n'a 

point  de  xeit. 
ai.  aie.     Na/cre  sans  majtre.     Je  suis  aist  que  sa  plare  soit  guerie. 
ais,  aix.     Je  ne  \ais  jamaf*  au  Pala/j  sans  desirer  la  paix. 
cis.  oient.     J'ecudio/j  &,  je  liso/j  pendant  qu'ils  r'wient  &  s'amuso/en^ 
ets.  aits.     Mes  projef^  m'ont  donne  bien  des  regrets,     Ces  portraits  sont  im- 

paiffl/itj. 
^3.     Ses  exc^*  &  ses  acctf.y  de  fureur  ont  nui  X  ses  progres. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  7 

TTie  Guttural  e  at  the  end  of  monosyllables  and  in  the  composition  of 
words. 

This  vowel  is  so  called  because  it  is  pronounced  from  the  throat ;  the 
finals  ew,  eeu,  eus,  ew,  aux,  euse  are  pronounced  nearly  alike,  though  much 
graver,  especially  the  three  last. 

E.     Je  me  \e  representais  tout  autr«nent  quff  ce  quf  vousditcs. 
eu.  ecu.     Ce  jewne  homme  obtiendra  pa*  a  peu  le  \eu  du  pewple. 
ceux.  eu.  eux.     J'ai  fait  des  vauxpour  eux  pendant  les  deux  jours  de  jc»ne. 
eus,  euse.     Elie  a  les  ycux  ble«* .  Elle  est  honteu^e  &  peuicw/e. 

Silent  e.     It  gives  a  full  sound  to  a  final  consonant  which  othe|-wise  would 
almost  be  silent,  and  the  syllable  which  precedes  it  becomes  long. 
E.    Un  vase  plein  &  une  bouteille    pleine.     Le  medecin  ordonna  une  roe- 

decine. 

Slender  i. 
I.     L7dee  derindzvisib/late  estn'd/cule.     L'infimte  deTetemite. 

The  Broad,  or  circumflex  t.     This  vowel  is  pronounced  by  drawing  the 
teeth  close.     It  has,  if  I  may  be  allowed  the  expression,  the  sound  of  a 
■whistle. 
I.     On  nous  apporte  a  dine  dans  ce  gite.     Nous  le  v»mes  8t  lui  dimes. 

The  open  o  and  au  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  polysyllables  are  sounded 
alike, 
o.  au.     Les  Polonais  sont  economes.     Son  tableau  represente  un  coteau. 

Broad  o. —  os,  ots,  aux  at  the  end  of  words  and  au  in  monosyllables  arc 
sounded  alike.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  letter*  or  x  when  added  to  sub- 
stantives or  adjectives  to  denote  the  plural,  serve  besides  in  gaierai,  to  make 
the  preceding  syllables  long. 

6.     Les  Apotres  donnaient  I'aumeJne.     Mon  bouquet  d'anemones  &  le  vctrc. 
OS.  ots.     Nous  etions  dot-i-dos.     A  propcw  ou  sont  les  pc/*  d'abricof*.? 
aux,  au.     Deux  beaux  chevai^.     La  peau  d'uu  beau  \cau  &  un  ieau  d'eau. 

open  u. 
^  ^u.    Elle  a  perdu  son  usu&uit.    Le  mercure  fait  de  belles  cures. 

Broad  C. 
a.    Les  m«res  nc  sont  pas  mires.     Je.  brwle,  tu  briles,  il  br«Ie,  &c 

«u. 
oM.      II  voMS  faut  beaucou/»  de  courage  pour  soutenir  son  coup  d'oeil. 

NASAL  SOUNDS. 

un  and  urn. 
on,  um.     Chacun  est  jeun.     C'est  un  importuw.     Un  jarfum  exquis. 

on  and  om. 
on,  om.    On  rac<»Jte  que  ion  ballon  eit  tombe  co»trc  la  pompe. 


8 


PHILOSOPHY 


in  im,  ein,  ain,  aim,  are  Bounded  alike;  .^^ 

in.     C'est  im  mal/n  coqu/;z.     J'ai  compte  quinze  d/ndons. 

im,  ein.     L.'hnpdt  du  timbre.     Le  sere/n  tombe  sur  son  se/n. 

ain,  aim.     'Dcmain  nous  aurons  du  \)ain.    La  faim,  chasse  le  daim  du  bois. 

an,  am,  en,  cm,  ent,  aon. 
an.     Le  Sultan  en  paVIant  au  'Divan  comme  un  tyran  fit  maudire  son  rang. 
am,  en,  em.     L'^mbassadeur  etait  dans  sa  chawbre.     Nous  partirons  fn- 

se^nble  au  print en^s. 
ent,  aon.     II  fait  souv«w/  grand  feni.     Le  pao»  &  le  faen  jouent  dans  la 

cour. 

N.  B.  1.  When  after  w  or  n  follows  an  e  mute  in  the  same  syllable,  or  an- 
other m  or  n  with  a  vowel  in  the  following  syllable,  the  sound  ceases  to  be 
nasal:  Ex. 

Parfum,  parfumer.  Importun,  importuner,  Coquin,  coqulner.  Don, 
donne.    Vain,  vaine. 

2dly.  ent  is  silent  in  the  third  person  plural  of  Verbs,  but  the  preceding 
consonant  has  a  very  full  sound.     Ex.  Us  marches/,  elles  viennewf,  &c. 

Y,  by  itself,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  and  between  two  consonants 
*ounds  exactly  like  i ;  it  is  generally  used  to  point  out  the  Etymology  of 
words  derived  from  the  Greek. 

y.     Assis  a  I'ombre  d'une  jeuse  il  y  jouait  de  la  lyre.     U  est  tydropique.    La 
chj/mie  &  la  Metaphjsique. 

/,  Between  two  vowels  sounds  //. 

y.  Employez  un  citoji/en  ami  de  son  pa^s  &  le  paj^ez  genereufiement. 


TABLE  IL 


SOUNDS  OF  THE  DIPTHONGS. 


lOU, 

iu, 
icu, 
ieux, 
iai,  ie, 
ic,  iait, 
iaient,  iais, 

ia, 

ia,  ias, 
ian, 
ion. 


Formed  from  the  Voviels,  Examples. 

i  andoxx ;  La  chroMrme  rama  vers  Colliowre. 

Les  Confuc/us  &  les  Fab/us. 
Adieu,  monsieur  le  rieur. 
C'est  un  \ieux  Ixxxurieux . 
Je  me  confzm  a  son  amitiV. 
Ma  nirce  est  vieille ;  il  etudia//. 
Us  se  iiaient  a  ce  nz'aw,  &  je  m'en  de- 
iiais. 

Un  dmdeme  orne  de  d/amans. 
Au  diable  ton  galimatias. 
Ce  negoc/ant  est  trop  con£iant. 
Ses  passions  le  font  rugir  comme  un 
lion. 


in,  al'ways  in 

verbs,  and  in  some ' 

nouns. 

ien,  in  nouns. 


-a  open ; 
—a  broad ; 


-an; 
-on; 


>  i ain  ;  Ce  lien  ne  tient  a  rien. 

i  and  ain ;  and        Le  maintirn  d'un  client  i  le  soutien  d'un 
i an  ;  patient. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


Formed  from  the  Vcmels. 


Mieu, 
oueux. 

ouandeu ; 

oui, 

ou i; 

©uc, 

ou e; 

ouet,  ouait, 

ou e; 

oi,  oit,  DC, 

ou e ; 

ouaient,  ouais, 

ouets. 

ou i  ; 

ois,  oient, 

0 6; 

ouas,  ouaf, 

oua. 

ouon. 

ou on ; 

ouin. 

ou in ; 

oin, 

o  -' — in  j 

•uan,  ouen. 

Formed  frotn  the  VcmeU. 

ueu. 

u  and  eu; 

ueux. 

ui. 

u i; 

ue, 

u e; 

uait,  uet, 

u — a; 

uais,  uaient,  uets, 
ua, 

«ast  u i  broad ; 

Bon,  u on  ; 

liin,  u in  ; 

nant,  u an ; 


Example*. 
C'est  un  grand  ]oueur. 
Des  chemins  honeux. 
I^ouise  est  eblou/ssante ;  il  est  r^jo«is- 
sant. 

Vous  Ites  tres  cnrotig;  il  est  trot/*, 
]oiiet,  souhait,  il  louait. 
Ma  foi,  il  croit  que  c'est  de  la  mtelle 

lis  louaient,  ]Q.\ouais,  des  ]ouets. 

Que  les  rois  soier*  justes. 

Tu  joua*  afin  qii'il  jouit. 

Ce  rouage  va  tres-mal. 

Nous  jouons,  nous  l#«o?i3, 

II  fait  son  joujou  d'un  h?ibotiin. 

Je  vis  dans  mon  com  sans  soin  ni  be- 

soin. 

II  vit  en  }ouant  la  ville  de  Kouen, 

Example*. 

A  la  \ueur  des  etoiles. 

Son  front  respectueux. 

Donnez-lui  un  biscuit. 

Cette  r\ui^  a  remw^  vers  le  sud. 

II  remuaii  ;  un  langage  mwef . 

Je  le  saiwa/*;  ils  xuaient;  des  bl«^«*, 

II  continwa  d'observer  le  nwctgc 

Tu  continwa^  ,•  tu  substitwfl*. 

Nous  nous  salwons/  nous  continwo;»s. 

Les  liqueurs  su//2tent  en  ]uin, 

II  a  I'air  d'un  chat-hwan*. 


TABLE  IIL 


SOUNDS  OF  THE  CONSONANTS. 


like 


B  has  two  sounds  ;  the  first 


b.     Voili  un  ^au  bouquet  qui  sent  b\tn 
l)on 

Sometimes  it  has  almost  the  sound  Une  observation  aistraite. 
of  be  in  French.  One  must  however  II  o^tint  un  pouvolr  a^solu. 
avoid  laying  much  stress  upon  the  e. 


C  has  three  sounds  ;  before  a,  o,  u,    i.     On  mit  le  curie  ux  au  cachot  pour  le 

recompenser  de  son  caquet. 
Before  e,  i,  or  with  f ,  *,     Cette  cire  est  au  citron.    Une  le^on  de 

Frarjiis. 
In  a  few  words,  nearly  g,     Secondement  ou  en  second  lieu,  un 

lieu  secret,  une  becasse  &  trois  be- 
cassines. 
N.  B.  In  the  following  words  it  Is  not  pronounced:    Almanacb^  lacs  (de 
»oie)  marc  (d'or  ou  d'argent). 

VOL.    II.  B 


I©  PHILOSOPHY 

CH  has  two  sounds  ;  eh.     On  C/6argea  cle  c>6a!nes  le  c-6evalier  de 

C6irac. 
In  some  words ;  ^,     L*ec/&o  de  la  voix  des  Bacc;6antes  re- 

teutissait;  une  notion  arci^etype. 


D  has  the  sound  of 

before  a  vowel  ©r  an  h  mute. 


t,     II    reponc^  en  furiboncf  »  ce  granrf 
homme. 


F  has  generally  the  sound  of 
before  a  vowel  or  an  b  mute. 


II  a  employe  neuf  hommes  pendant 

neuf  ans. 

Un  esprit  vindicatif  &  jaloux. 


G  keeps  its  natural  sound  before 
a,  o,  u. 

Before  e,  i,  is  sounded  like 
Final  in  some  words  before  a 
vowel,  like 


Que  ^agne  Guillaume  a  faire  le  ^o- 
g,         ^uenard  ? 
j,     Ce  general  est^;  une  vraie  pirouette. 

II  sue  san^  &  eau.     C'est  un  lon^  Hot. 


Gn  is  generally  liquid,        gnia,  gnio,     Les  vi^obles  de  la  Champa^jc  &  de  1» 

Bourgo^ne. 
Sometimes  not  liquid,        gna,gnOt     Voili  des  eaux  sta^nantes.     II  ctudie 

la  ^nomonique. 


H  is  sometimes  pronounced 


On  other  occasions  it  is  not 
pronounced. 


Ce  Aousard  se  croit  un  hitos  avec  sa. 

Aallebarde. 
II  se  hktdL  -6ardiment  de  gravir  la  i>au- 

teur. 
Cet  hommt  sans  Aonneur  est  fils  d'une 

i6eroine. 


K  is  sounded  before  a, 
Before  the  other  vowels. 


c,     Le  ^an  des  Tartares  ;  les  alialis  sont 
tres  en  vogue. 
qu,     Le  dermis  ne  gucrira  pas  son  >fyste. 


L  has  two  sounds ;  liquid,  glia,  glio,     Ce  Solei/bri//ant  me  blesse  ToEi/, 

Not  liquid,  U,  la,  lo,     Xa  Puce//e  d'Orleans  ega/ait  Achi//e 

en  va/eur. 

It  is  not  pronounced  in  the  following     Bari/,  cheni/,  couti/,  feni/,  fusi/,  gii/, 
words.  outi/,  sourci/,  genti/,  (joli). 


M  has  three  sounds ;  the 

1st,  natural, 
2d,  nasal, 
.3d,  like 


m,     JJfenez-moi  chez  ma  tncre. 
n,     Je  sais  son  no»t  8c  son  surnoui. 
me,     Sewi,  Jerusalewi,  Selim,  Ephraiw, 


K  has  three  sounds ;  the  1st  nasal,  Ce  vaurien  est  bien  malin. 

2d  open,  L'c^znemi  est  aweanti. 

3d  like  aincy     L'-amour  &  THymen,-  il  dit  amc«  a 
tout. 


P  has  but  one  sound 


j&,    Pduvre/>etit/»laideur  /?rend /la^ience. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  11 

Q^has  three  sounds  ;  1st,  like  k,     II  a  re9U  le  «7uatorze  en  ^uantite  du 

and  the  u  following  is  mute.  ^^uinyuina  de  bonne  ^ualite. 

2d.  The  «  is  pronounced,  and         C'cst  un  ^uadrupdde  a^atique.     II  a 
has  the  sound  of  cou,         ecrit  un  in-^warto  sur  la  quadrature 

du  cercle. 
3d.  In  some  words,  like         cm,     II  a  ete  mis  i-^ia  ;  le  quintuple  de 

vingt. 

R,  1st,  keeps  its  natural  sound,  as  in     11  a  re9u  recemment  le  rest*  de  la  re- 

cette. 
2d.  Is  sonorous  in  Mettez  dans  cette  cuiller  de  fer  quel, 

ques  gouttes  d'amer. 
3d.  Is  strongly  pronounced  in  fi-     L'errewr   de  ce  procureur  guerit  le 
nal  syllables  in  eur,         taillrwr  &  ce  volffur  de  fournissetzr 

dc  \eur  terreur. 
4th.  Is  mute  in  the  Infinitive  of    Je  vais  demand^r  permission  d'aller 
verbs,  when  followed  by  a  conso-         la  trouver  demain. 
nant. 

5th.  Is  on  the  contrary  sounded     II  faut  lui  parler  avant  de  cherchcr  un 
in  the  Inftnitives  of  verbs  when         domestique. 
followed  by  a  vaael. 

6th.    Is    rauie   m  familiar    dis-    Yotre  pcre  a  un  au/re  projel. 
course,  in  tre,  before  a  consonant. 

S  has  two  sounds  ;  1st,  #,     Sujannc  joyez  ^age  &  jachez  *ouffrir. 

Generally  between  two  vowels,  Zt     Rojette  a  perdu  son  fu*eau  en  allant 

4  I'eglife. 

T  has  two  sounds  ;  1st    its  natu- 
ral sound,  t,     Le  ronnerre  f'a  fait  fourner  la  f^«-e. 
It  is  pronouaced  like  s. 

In  substantives  in  fion,  L 'ambition  de  cette  nztion  cause  sa 

destrucf/on. 

—  proper  names  in  tien,  *,     Le   T'lticn  Sc  Diocie<ien  etaient  de 

grands  hommes. 

—  adjectives  in  tial,  tid,  tieux,  tieta,     II  est  essenfiel  d'etre  imparfoal.     Le» 
and  their  derivatives.  ambi/ieux  sont  rarement  pa/ienls. 

V  has  but  one  sound ;  v,     Kicndrez-vou*  me  voir  wndredi  i 

X  has  four  sounds ;   1st,  like  h,     Les  coiffeuses  taxent  le  beau  &txc. 

2d,  ^s,     L'exaininateur  cxaspere  ejcige  unex- 

emple. 
3d,  as  ss  in  hiss,       De  Cadix  je  me  rendis  a  Bruxeltes  en 

soLxante  heurcs. 
4-th,  before  a  J'ai  mange  deux  ccufs  St  six  hultrcs. 

voxcel  or  an  /}  mute  s, 

Z  has  beside*  its  natural  sound,  as,         Malgre  son  zclc,  il  est  entre  le  z'lstt 

&c  le  jzeste. 
The  souud  of  *  in  final  syllables,  *,    Je  vais  a  Mets  &  puis  a  Rhodes. 


? 


IS  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 
How  many  kinds  of  words  do  you  distinguish 

Master. 

Nine  :  viz.  The  Noun,  Adjective,  Article  or  determining 
word,  Pronoun,  Verb,  so  called  by  way  of  eminence,  PrC' 
position.  Adverb,  Conjunction  and  Interjection,  which  are 
adequate  to  the  full  expression  of  all  our  ideas,  thoughts, 
and  sensations,  and  will  become  the  subject  of  the  foUow- 
ing  conversations. 


CONVERSATION  II. 

OF  THE  J\r0UJ^, 

Scholar. 
WHAT  do  you  mean  by  the  word  termed  by  Gramma- 
rians a  Noun  ? 

Master. 
A  word  which  presents  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  any  ob- 
ject, being,  or  thing  whatever  :   such  is  its  magnetic  pow- 
er over  the  human  mind,  that  the  instant  it  is  expressed, 
we  are  in  a  great  degree  feelingly  alive  to  the  perception 
of  the  object,  as  if  it  stood  before  us. 
Scholar. 
How  many  kinds  of  Nouns  are  there  ? 

Master. 
Three.  First ;  The  Proper,  which  relates  to  an  indivi- 
dual person  or  thing,  as  Bonaparte,  Nelson,  Paris,  Phila^ 
delphia.  Second  ;  The  Common,  relative  to  a  class,  more 
or  less  numerous,  of  similar  persons  or  things,  as  Animal, 
animal ;  man,  homme  ;  philosopher,  philosophe  ;  house,  wai- 
son ;  room,  chambre ;  and  Third,  The  Abstract  Noun, 
which  represents  a  quality  or  an  abstraction,  as  if  it  were 
an  existing  object,  though  it  only  exists  in  the  mind,  as 
Courage,  courage ;  patriotism,  patriotisme;  love,  amour ^ 
birth,  naissance  ;  time,  terns  ;  eternity,  eternite  ;  reward  j 
recompense. 

Scholar. 
Can  you  trace  those  Nouns  to  their  original  source  \ 

Master. 
I  will  endeavour  to  do  so.     In  the  dawn  of  Society,  when 
the  family  of  mankind  was  but  small,  man  strongly  felt  the 


OF  LANGUAGE.  tS 

necessity  of  living  in  a  state  of  union,  as  well  to  shield  him- 
self from  the  attack  of  the  ferocious  animal  that  roamed 
for  prey  through  the  wilderness,  as  to  assist  by  social  inter- 
course,' in  procuring  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  providing 
against  the  cravings  of  hunger  and  other  imperious  wants. 
He,  therefore,  had  recourse  to  every  means  in  his  power,  to 
form  the  social  compact^  by  an  interchange  of  kind  offices 
and  communications,  upon  Mhich  his  safety  and  we//-^(?/«^' 
so  much  depended.  Endowed  v/ith  flexible  arms,  it  was 
natural  that  he  should  exercise  them  in  order  to  point  out 
such  objects  as  he  was  desirous  of  obtaining,  expressing, 
at  the  same  time,  by  the  various  attitudes  of  the  body,  and 
quick  intelligence  communicable  by  the  eye,  the  degree  of 
his  wants  and  the  ideas  conceived  of  those  objects.  Expe- 
rience, however,  ere  long,  made  him  sensible  how  inade- 
quate the  language  of  the  eye  only  was  to  the  complete  ex- 
pression of  his  sentiments  and  ideas,  which  would  be 
more  forcibly  experienced  in  the  hour  of  danger,  when 
enveloped  m  the  gloom  of  night.  A  substitute  now  anxious- 
ly sought  after,  for  signs  made  invisible  by  the  profound 
darkness  of  night,  was  readily  discovered  in  the  power 
of  speech,  that  wonderful  gift  conferred  by  the  Creator 


on  man 


Alive  to  the  feelings  6f  pain  and  pleasure,  mun  had 
observed  that  cries  never  failed  to  succeed  certain  sensa- 
tions :  these,  frequently  repeated,  became  associated  ex- 
pressions and  voce/ signs  of  such  sensations  (1)  ;  and  when 
he  wanted  to  give  an  account  of  the  sufferings  witnessed^ 
in  his  fellov*^-creature,  he  had  only  to  imitate  the  cries  of 
the  sufferer,  and,  by  making  certain  gestures  necessary  to 
unfold  circumstances  relative  thereto,  he  was  instantly  un* 
derstood. 

Having  proceeded  thus  far  in  his  observations,  in  order 
to  give  names  to  those  visible  objects  which  were  the  most 
interesting  to  him,  he  was  led  by  Nature,  that  had  assist- 
ed him  in  his  cries,  to  the  expression  of  the  most  lively 
sensations.  The  organ  of  speech,  rendered  flexible  by 
constant  and  repeated  exercise  (2),  supplied  him  with  a 
sufficient  variety  of  articulate  sounds,  which,  connected 
into  words,  were  always  equal  to  the  expression  of  his 
wants  ;  and  different  sounds  were  of  course  imposed  to 
signify  different  objects  (3). 

The  habit  of  giving  names  to  visible  objects  becoming 
familiar  to  mankind,  a  name  was  bestowed   on  whatever 


Vi  PHILOSOPHY* 

was  useful  to  be  known  or  worthy  to  be  remembered  ;  but 
in  the  course  of  this  distribution^  they  discovered  a  great 
similarity  between  some  objects.  For  instance  ;  having 
called  an  object  connected  with  the  earth  by  a  number  of 
small  parts  extending  into  it,  uniting  into  a  common  trunk, 
and  from  thence  ascending  and  variously  ramifying,  Tree, 
(which  was,  at  first,  meant  to  express  a  solitary  and  parti- 
cular object)  and  observing  many  others  exactly  corres- 
ponding to  this  description,  (so  natural  is  it  for  man  to  ge- 
neralize) (4),  he  soon  gave  the  same  name  to  all  those 
large  vegetables  consisting  of  branches  growing  from  a 
common  trunk,  which  was  termed  a  noun  common  of  ki?id. 
Not  confined  to  certain  appearances  common  to  all  trees, 
on  account  of  their  special  properties,  it  became  necessa- 
ry to  arrange  them  into  distinct  classes.  Hence  proceeds 
the  noun  common  of  species^  such  as  Apple-trct^  Pear-tree, 
he.  (5) 

The  narrow  province  of  the  human  memory,  the  boun- 
tlaries  fixed  by  an  Almighty  hand  to  the  human  under- 
standing, will  not  permit  us  to  retain  a  proper  name  for 
every  object,  nor  is  it  material  we  should  ;  thus,  our  in- 
capacity, not  to  mention  the  inutility  of  distinguishing  by 
a  different  name  what  in  the  nature  of  things  may  be  con- 
sidered a  mere  shade  of  difference,  has  necessarily  intro- 
duced into  language  nouns  common  both  of  kind  and  spe- 
cies. 

The  names  that  have  invariably  remained  proper^  are 
those  of  particular  persons  (6),  countries,  cities,  rivers, 
mountains,  &c.  besides  the  following  two^  which  denote, 
in  every  language,  two  objects  alone  in  their  species,  viz. 
the  sacred  name  of  God^  Dieu,  and  that  of  his  glorious 
work,  le  SOLEIL,  the  Sun,  derived  from  the  Latin  Sol 
and  hence  the  adjective  solus  (alone),  because  he  shines 
ftlone  the  king  of  light. 

The  Abstract  Nouns  will  now  properly  come  under  consi- 
deration after  the  Adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived. 
Scholar. 

Are  there  not  some  other  particulars,  as  well  as  the 
name  of  objects,  deserving  attention  t 

Master. 

Yes  ;  two  essential  ones  :  The  jirst  relates  to  the  Gen- 
der of  nouns  which  are  either  tnasculine  or  feminine^  in 
French  ;  and  the  second  res'^ect^  the  manner  of  forming 
their  plural.     Their  Gender^  as  being  intricate  and  arbitra- 


OF  LANGUAGE.  15 

ry,  will  now  exclusively  occupy  our  attention  ;  and  their 
number  shall  be  investigated  afterwards.  Without  giving 
you  the  trouble  of  a  further  inquiry  on  the  subject,  I 
shall  immediately  proceed  to  acquaint  you  with  the  proba- 
ble origin  of  this  distinction  of  nouns. 

Man  being  of  an  inventive  scrutinizing  genius  and  giving 
names  to  the  objects  of  his  wants,  must  have  early  observ- 
ed, that  Nature  had  divided  his  own  species  into  two  Sex^ 
es  I,  the  Male  and  Female  :  and  her  division  would  not 
have  been  respected,  had  he  called  the  female  by  the  same 
name  as  his,  fellow-man^  or,  in  other  words,  had  he  given 
the  appellation  oi  man  to  -woman.  He,  therefore,  soon  de- 
vised a  term,  by  which  the  female  of  his  species  was  to  be 
designated,  and  thus,  he  called  her  tvoman.^  Femme. 

But  animals  also  had  their  sex.  The  Coxu^  that  supplied 
him  with  wholesome  and  nutritious  milk  ;  the  Hen^  that 
furnished  his  table  with  a  luxurious  food  ;  and  the  Sheep^ 
that  defended  him  from  the  inclemencies  of  winter  with 
her  warm  fleece,  were  severally  entitled  to  distinct  names 
for  the  discrimination  of  their  sex  :  and  man,  inspired 
with  reason  and  actuated  by  gratitud^  formed  the  judi- 
cious and  laudable  distinction.  With  respect  to  animals 
less  important  to  him,  or  less  worthy  his  attention,  he  was- 
not  so  particular  ;  and  instead  of  imposing  a  name  on 
the  y^-wrt/^ ,  entirely  diff'erent  from  that  of  the  male,  he 
framed  a  specific  name  far  the  former,  by  a  slight 
change  in  the  termination  of  the  latter,  as,  in  French, 
from  the  masculine  terms  chat^  a  cat ;  chien^  a  dog  ;  loupy 
a  wolf  ;  he  derived  the  femines,  chatte^chicnne^  loiive. 

Nothing  appears  more  reasonable  than  this  distinction, 
which  the  God  of  nature  had  wisely  marked  by  drawing 
with  an  unerring  hand  the  sexual  line.  But  man  soon  de- 
viated from  the  path  of  reason,  in  rendering  every  object, 
even  the  inanimate  things  of  his  own  creation,  male  orfe- 
male^  by  arranging  their  names  in  the  class  of  masculine 
or  feminine  nouns.  The  cause  of  this  erroneous  princi- 
ple in  language  may  be  thus  accounted  for.  In  the  infant 
state  of  Society,  when  his  condition  was  precarious  and 
circumscribed,  the  sex  of  all  animals  could  not  be  discov- 
ered. Some  that  were  dangerous  and  terrific  to  him,  he 
carefully  avoided  :  some  that  viewed   him  with    dread. 


t  Derived  from  th«  Latin  word  Sccare  to  cut^  to  divide. 


Iff  PHILOSOPHY 

sought  the  deepest  recesses  of  the  forest  for  safety  ;  and 
others,  expressing  theirfear,  with  fluttering  pinions,  launch- 
ed into  the  vast  regions  of  the  air,  far  beyond  his  observa- 
tion. Notwithstanding  those  obstacles  in  the  road  to 
improvement  ;  and  as  no  law  of  nature,  nor  intellectual 
exertion,  could  direct  him  in  his  course,  such  was  the  ar- 
dor of  his  inclination  to  use  the  faculty  of  speech,  now  be- 
come familiar,  that  he  gave  names  to  animals  of  the  same 
species,  as  if  conscious,  that  they  were  all  absolutely  Males 
or  Females,  This  will  account  for  the  Elephant^  Leopard^ 
Bear^  Rat^  £s?c.  having,  for  instance,  the  name  of  the  male 
only,  in  French  ;  and  for  the  Panther^  Wasp^  Adder ^  Mouse^ 
&c.  having  no  discriminating  name  for  the  male  species. 
Thus  were  fear  and  weakness  the  authors  of  error.  By- 
judging  too  hastily,  the  mind  was  misled  %  ;  and  man,  in 
early  Society,  leaving  the  path  of  nature  to  take  that  of 
caprice,  and  easily  biassed  in  his  judgment,  erred  now  so 
much  as  to  impose  names  even  on  inanimate  thing%^  as  if 
they  had  been  of  the  3Iale  or  Female  sex  (7). 
Scholar. 

Is  the  English  the  only  language,  in  which  inanimate 
objects  or  things  are  confined  to  a  certain  Gender  called 
the  Neuter  ? 

Master. 

Yes  :  (I  believe)  at  least,  in  Europe  ^8)  :  and  this  is  an 
advantage,  which  indubitably  renders  it,  not  only  more 
simple,  but  more  easily  acquired  by  foreigners  ;  yet  it 
must  be  acknowledged,  that  the  application  of  various  Gen- 
ders to  different  things,  (however  introduced  in  the  be- 
ginning) tends  in  a  great  degree,  to  yield  grace,  harmony, 
animation,  and  often  precision  to  language.  You  will  be 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  as  you  advance  iii 
the  acquisition  of  the  French  tongue  ;  you  must  therefore 
endeavour  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  right  Gender  of 
every  Noun^  without  which,  you  will  be  continually  exposed 
to  blunders  and  to  the  ridicule  even  of  the  im learned  of  the 
French. 

Scholar. 

In  order  to  avoid  blunders  and  ridicule  how  am  I  to  ob- 
tain this  essential  information,  respecting  the  Genders  of 
Nouns  ? 


I  The  Articles  the  invention  of  which,  as  we  shall  show  in  treating  of 
that  part  of  Speech,  was  of  a  very  early  date,,  contributed  to  render  the  error 
irremediable. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  17 

Master. 

By  attending  to  the  Vocabulary  prefixed  to  this  work^ 
and  committing  to  memory  the  Familiar  Phrases^  in 
which  the  principal  words  exemplifying  the  Genders  of 
Nouns  are  exhibited,  and  for  this  purpose  also  many  of 
these  phrases  were  composed. 

When  you  wish  to  increase  your  stock  of  information 
relative  to  the  Genders,  beyond  what  is  contained  in  this 
collection,  you  may  consult  the  Dictionarj^  of  the  French 
Academy.  However,  to  call  forth  your  exertions,  and  en- 
courage your  researches  in  the  discovery  of  exceptions,  I 
here  present  you  a  few  rules,  by  which  the  Gender  of  a 
Noun  may  be  nearly  ascertained. 

RULES. 

.  Nouns  ending  in  e  mute,  S  and  ion^  are  commonly  fem- 
inine, as  prudence^  prudence  ;  humanite^  humanity  j  reli- 
gion^ religion. 

The  terminations  ble^  cle^  Jle^  gle^  ple^  dre^  gre^  trCy  vre^ 
sme^  ste,  eige,  oge^  itge^  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Nouns  ending  in  consonants,  which  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous,  are  masculine,  with  few  exceptions. 

The  terminations  ^rs*,  eure^  ire,  me,/)/ie,  one,  oire,  are 
nearly  common  to  both  Genders. 

The  names  of  winds,  rivers,  mountains,  trees,  and 
shrubs  are  less  arbitrary,  being,  for  the  most  part,  mas- 
culine. 

The  names  of  flowers  and  roots  are  commonly  of  the 
feminine  Gender. 

Scholar. 

Having  fully  explained  the  Gender,   you   will  be    kind 
enough  to  give  me  an  idea  of  the  Number. 
Master. 

With  pleasure.  In  French  there  are  two  Numbers  ; 
the  singular  and  the  plural :  the  former  relates  to  one  ob- 
ject or  thing  ;  the  latter  to  several.  The  necessity  of 
using  the  plural  was,  at  an  early  period,  readily  conceiv- 
ed. Suppose,  for  a  moment,  that  a  vocal  sign  or  sound  to 
distinguish  the  singidar  from  the  plural,  had  not  yet  been 
invented  ;  how  could  you  inform  me  that  you  had  seen 
birds  without  specifying  the  number  with  v/hich,  I  must 
imagine,  you  were  unacquainted.  You  would  have  no 
other  means  of  informing  me  of  it,  but  to  repeat  the  sin- 

TOL.  II,  D 


18  PHILOSOPHY 

gular  word  i^zW  several  times,  and  in  order  to  make  me 
sensible  that  you  had  seen  more  birds  than  you  had  repeat* 
ed  the  term,  you  would  make  rapid  signs  with  your  fin- 
gers, to  signify  they  were  still  more  numerous.  You 
would  continually  feel  the  necessity  of  using  an  additional 
sign  to  express  the  idea  of  plurality  ;  and  in  order  to  con- 
vey such  idea  to  the  mind,  your  ingenuity  might  prompt 
you,  at  last,  to  give  a  new  sound  to  the  Noun  by  adding 
thereto  the  letter  S  (|). 

The  French,  as  well  as  the  English,  have  adopted  the  let- 
ter S  for  the  same  purpose,  with  this  difference,  that 
the  latter  always  pronounce  it,  but  the  former  do  not,  un- 
less the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  ;  and  then  S 
is  softened  into  Z,  which,  forming  a  syllable  in  combina- 
tion with  such  vowel,  links  the  two  words  together  ;  so 
that  S  is  never  sounded  ^S*  but  sometimes  Z,  and  may  be 
considered  rather  a  sign  for  the  eye  than  for  the  ear. 
Scholar. 

Why  do  you  make  the  singular  undergo  an   alteration, 
and  scarcely  make  use  of  it  afterwards  ?  Is  there  not  some- 
thing whimsical  in  this  mode   of  proceeding  ? 
Master. 

Apparently  so  ;  but  not  in  reality.  It  is  highly  proba- 
ble that  the  original  framers  of  the  French  language  pro- 
nounced the  S  at  the  end  of  words  (J)  when  it  was  first  in- 
troduced, for  men  in  those  days  did  not,  like  the  moderns 
invent  difficult  things,  which  were  soon  after  consigned  to 
oblivion  ;  but,  as  the  language  improved,  articles  were  de- 
vised, which  received  laws  from  the  Noun  to  which  they 
were  subject  :  they  wore  (if  I  may  use  the  expression)  its 
livery  ;  and  became  masculine  or  feminine,  singular  or 
plural,  according  to  the  nature  thereof.  The  number  of 
the  Noun  being  always  determined  by  the  Article,  which 
precedes  it,  there  can  be  no  occasion  to  use  the  hissing 
sound  of  S  when  it  can,  without  trespassing  on  propri- 
ety, be  avoided. 


1 1  think  a  letter  better  calculated  for  a  mark  of  the  plural  could  not  have 
been  selected ;  for  by  the  peculiar  hissing  sound  of  it,  words  may  be  length- 
ened at  pleasure  and  thereby  bette/-  fitted  to  give  an  additional  force,  to  sig- 
nify that  apparent  expansion  of  one  object  into  many,  which  is  the  essence  of 
plurality, 

\  In  confirmation  of  this  conjecture  several  French  Gentlemen,  with  whom 
I  have  conversed  on  the  subject,  informed  me  they  had  observed  that  the  in- 
habitants of  several  parts  of  France  still  pronounce  the  S  at  the  end  of  many 
Nouns 


OF  LANGUAGE.  19 

I  shall  now  explain  to  you  why  S  softened  into  Z  is  pro- 
nounced before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel.  Taste 
and  judgment  have  happily  produced  this  change,  for  the 
sake  of  harmony  and  to  prevent  an  hiatus  or  clashing  of 
vowels,  which  grates  on  the  ear,  and  occasions  a  gaping 
barbarous  sound  ;  as  if  we  were  to  say  in  English  a  asSy 
a  art^  or  in  French  trois  dries ^  not  sounding  the  letter  S  as 
is  done  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  Consonant,  as  we 
have  before  observed.  To  guard  against  this  inconveni- 
ence, the  agreeable  sound  of  Z  is  introduced  between  the 
two  vowels,  in  order  to  promote  a  connection  that  pre- 
vents a  harsh  pronunciation. 

Scholar. 

Are  there  no  exceptions  to  this  rule  of  forming  the  plu- 
ral of  French  Nouns  by  the  addition  of  ^S*  ? 
Master. 

Yes  :  Four,  which  are  as  follows  : 

First.  Nouns  ending  in  ^,  x^  or  z  do  not  admit  of  it,  in 
the  formation  of  the  plural.  Example  ;  le  mechant  Jils^ 
les  mechans  Jils  ;  the  wicked  son,  the  wicked  sons  :  la  belle 
voixy  les  belles  voix  ;  the  fine  voice,  fine  voices  :  legros  neZy 
les  gros  nez  ;  the  big  nose,  big  noses. 

Second.  Nouns  ending  in  aw,  eu,  ieu  and  ou^  admit  of  an 
X  to  form  their  plural,  as,  un  grand  chapeau  ;  a  large  hat : 
de  grands  ehapeaux  ;  large  hats  :  un  feu  allume  ;  a  kindled 
fire  :  desfeux  allumes  ;  kindled  fires  :  ce  lieu  est  Sieve  ;  this 
place  is  elevated :  ces  lieux  sont  Sieves  ;  these  places  are 
elevated  :  void  un  caillou  bien  dur  ;  here  is  a  very  hard 
flint :  voila  des  cailloux  bien  durs  ;  there  are  very  hard  flints. 

Third.  Nouns  ending  in  ail  or  a/,  change  their  termin- 
ations into  aux^  in  the  plural  ;  thus,  un  travail  assidu  ;  a 
diligent  labour  :  des  travaux  assidus ;  diligent  labours  : 
son  cheval  est  fougueux  ;  his  horse  is  unruly  :  ses  chevaux 
sont fougueux  ;  his  horses  are  unruly. 

Fourth.  Nouns  of  several  syllables  ending  in  nt^  convert 
the  t  into  *,  in  their  plural ;  as,  je  rScompense  un  enfant 
obeissant  ;  I  reward  a  dutiful  child  :  je  punis  les  enfans 
desobeissans  ;  I  punish  undutiful  children. 

All  monosyllables,  except  gent^  people  (which  makes 
gens^  in  the  plural),  follow  the  general  rule  ;  as,  le  vent  est 
violent;  the  wind  is  boisterous  :  les  vents  sont  favor  ables  ; 
the  winds  are  favorable. 


20  PHILOSOPHY 

The  following  Nouns  may  be  called  exceptions  to  the 
second  and  third  exceptions  immediately  preceding,  as 
they  take  an  S  to  form  their  plural,  instead  of  x,  &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

Bijou^  cou,  clou,  Jilou,  hibou,  licou,  fou,  trou ;  jewel, 
neck,  nail,  pick-pocket,  owl,  halter,  madman,  hole  :  hal, 
carnaval,  regal,  hocal;  ball,  carnival,  treat,  decanter  ;  a^- 
tirail,  detail,  eventail,  epouvantail,  gouvernail,  mail,  portail, 
serail ;  apparatus,  detail,  fan,  scare-crow,  helm,  mall, 
church-gate,  seraglio.  Betail,  cattle  ;  ceil,  eye  ;  del,  hea- 
ven ;  and  ail,  garlick,  are  quite  irregular,  and  make  besti- 
aux,  yeux,  cieux  and  aulx  in  the  plural. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  TO  THE  CONVER- 
SATION ON  THE  NOUN. 


(1.)  Those  cries  are  composed  of  Interjections  witk  which  Nature  has 
furnished  men  for  the  expression  of  feelings  or  affections,  in  common  with 
each  other.  Before  we  have  learned  to  articulate  a  single  word  we  already 
know  to  communicate  our  feelings  to  each  other,  with  an  undeviating  cer- 
tainty, through  the  medium  of  those  natural  signs  ;  witness  the  language  of 
a  child,  which,  before  he  can  articulate,  is  entirely  composed  of  interjections. 
Heneeit  appears  that  man  by  uttering  the  interjection  was  first  taught  his  ca- 
pacity for  the  various  modulations  and  inflexions  of  the  organ  of  speech,  and 
the  advantages  of  more  correctly  communicating  his  feeling  to  his  fellow, 
to  be  derived  therefrom,  as  there  is  but  one  step  from  noting  what  are  now 
called  interjections,  as  the  natural  signs  of  man's  feelings,  to  imposing,  as 
their  representatives,  marks  or  signs  on  the  objects  most  useful  to  be  remem- 
bered ;  therefore,  we  cannot  refuse,  as  some  Grammarians  have  done,  to 
rank  the  interjection,  the  mother  of  language,  among  the  parts  of  speech. 

(2.)  At  first,  the  progress  of  this  language  was  nevertheless  very  slow. 
The  organ  of  speech  was  so  inflexible  that  it  could  not  easily  articulate  any 
other  than  a  few  simple  sounds.  The  obstacles  which  hindered  them  from 
pronouncing  others,  prevented  them  even  from  suspecting  that  the  voice 
was  susceptible  of  any  farther  variation  beyond  the  small  number  of  words 
which  they  kad  already  devised. 

"  Let  us  suppose  the  two  first  inhabitants  of  the  vjorld  to  have  had  a  child, 
*«  who,  being  pressed  by  wants  which  he  could  not  without  some  difficulty 
**  make  known,  put  every  part  of  his  body  into  motion.  His  tongue  being 
<'  extremely  pliant,  made  an  extraordinary  motion  and  pronounced  a  new 
**  expression.  As  those  wants  continued  to  press  the  child,  this  occasioned 
"  a  repetition  of  the  same  efforts  ;  again  he  moved  his  tongue  in  the  same 
*«  manner  as  at  first,  and  articulated  the  same  sound.  The  parents  surprised, 
«•  having  at  last  guessed  his  meaning,  gave  him  what  he  wanted ;  but  tried, 
"  as  they  gave  it  him,  to  repeat  the  same  word.     The  difficulty  they  had  to 


OF  LANGUAGE.  21 

<«  pronounce  it,  showed  they  were  not  of  themselves  capable  of  inventing  it." 
(Origin  of  Human  Knowledge.) 

This  conjecture  is  happily  verified  by  the  extreme  difficulty  Savages, 
whom  we  endeavour  to  civilize,  find  in  prortouncing  a  great  many  words 
which  our  children  have  been  taught  to  pronounce  without  the  smallest  trou- 
ble. Add  to  this  the  ease  with  which  they  attain  the  pronunciation 
of  every  foreign  tongue  they  have  to  learn.  Hence  it  appears  that  chil- 
dren have  much  contributed  to  promote  the  progress  of  language  :  a  new 
reason  for  admiring  the  happy  dependence  which  Providence  has,  in  his  wis- 
dom established,  between  parent  and  child  :  a  dependence  which  unfor- 
tunately for  their  mutual  happiness  is  but  too  often  lost  sight  of. 

(3.)  It  is  an  error  to  think  that  the  first  articulate  sounds  have  been  the 
result  of  a  blind  choice.  Nature  first  guided  us,  then  analogy  made  us  in- 
vent some  others,  when  they  became  necessary.  To  corroborate  this  obser- 
vation concerning  the  choice  of  words,  I  will  mention  but  a  single  fact, 
which  is  incontrovertible.  The  words  mama  VLndpafia  which  are  probably 
among  the  first  invented  (for  they  are  dictated  by  nature  to  children  who 
utter  them,)  are  found,  with  the  same  meaning  connected  with  them,  in  a 
great  many  languages,  some  of  which  do  not  appear  to  have  received  them 
from  others.  Thus  the  words  abba,  or  baba,  or  papa,  and  that  of  onamaol 
the  ancient  oriental  languages,  w^hich,  with  a  very  slight  difference,  belong 
to  most  of  the  European  languages,  are  also  common  to  a  great  many  na- 
tions of  South  America  (the  languages  of  which  are  very  different),  and 
particularly  to  the  language  of  the  Omoga  nation  inhabiting  the  center  of 
that  continent. 

The  great  principle  of  the  formation  of  languages  when  studied,  with 
reason,  in  the  child  of  the  primordial  family,  is,  that  imitation  has  been  the 
primary  cause  of  the  first  grammar  :  new  and  artless  beings  developing 
themselves  in  the  presence  of  nature,  could  not  be  moved  but  by  the  physical 
objects  which  exercised  an  influence  over  them. 

The  more  their  senses  M-erc  struck  by  those  objects,  the  more  they  were 
tempted  to  imitate  them.  Their  voice  becoming  through  habit  more  and 
more  flexible,  must  have  expressed,  though  imperfectly  at  first,  the  various 
cries  of  animals,  the  whistling  of  the  winds,  the  murmur  of  waters, 
and  even  the  roar  of  thunder  and  stupendous  cataracts;  thus,  language,  in 
its  first  progress,  must  have  been  a  collectioh  df  onomatopies,  or  imitative 
words. 

(4.)  As  it  is  easier  for  man  to  use  a  name  he  kno\vs,  than  to  learn  a  iiew  one, 
he  generalizes  without  having  formed  the  design  of  generalizing,  and  with- 
out even  observing  he  is  generalizing.-^"  A  child  that  is  just  learning  to 
*'  speak  (says  Adam  Smith),  calls  every  person  who  comes  t(>  his  house  itt 
««  papa  or  Its  mama  ;  and  thus  bestou-^  upon  the  whole  species  those  names 
*'  which  it  had  been  taught  to  apply  to  two  individuals."  Having  several 
times  myself,  made  this  observation,  I  cannot  help  expressing  some  su.-prise 
that  it  could  have  escaped  the  observation  of  the  profound  and  eloquent 
J.J.  Rousseau,  who  remarks  in  his  discovfrse  sur  I'origine  de  /'  vi^galite,  8tc. 
Part  I.  "  That  man  having  called  an  oak  A,  called  a  second  one  B,  &,c.*' 

(5.)  Our  ideas  begin,  therefdre,  from  individual,  and  become  at  once  as 
general  as  possible,  and  afterwards  we  distribute  them  in  various  classes  onlr 
in  proportion  as  we  feel  the  necessity  of  distinguishing  them ;  such  is  the 
order  of  their  generation. 

(6.)  The  attentive  reader  must  remember  that  the  first  names  invented 
by  men,  were,  in  the  beginning,  peculiar  to  individual  objects.  From  this  cir- 
cumstance he  may  accuse  us  of  a  contradiction,  which  is  however  only  appa- 
rent, when  we  maintain  that  every  proper  name  of  individuals  is  derived  from 
some  words  haying  a  general  appellation  or  Common  meaning.     It  is  vcrr 


^2  PHILOSOPHY 

true  that  several  may  be  found  that  can  not  be  traced  to  their  original  source, 
and  for  the  same  reason  our  proposiiion  cannot  be  disproved:  while 
every  proper  name  vi-hose  origin  can  be  traced,  is  clearly  proved  to  be  derived 
from  such  a  source.  To  support  this  assertion  we  shall  have  recourse  to  the 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  German,  French,  and  English  languages,  when  the 
universality  of  this  principle  will  be  no  Icnger  doubted. 

In  the  Hebrew,  for  nistance,  Adam  means  red.  and  particularly  the  father 
of  mankind  ;  Eve,  the  mother  of  the  living  ;  Mel,  affliction  ;  Sbem,  name, 
(probably  from  his  bein^  the  Hrst  named  of  the  family  of  Noah)  ;  Ham, 
heat,  for  he  inhabited  Africa  or  Ej^ypt  ;  Canaan,  merchant ,-  Pe/e^,  division  ; 
it  was  m  the  time  of  that  Prince  men  began  to  divide  the  earth ;  Moses,  saved 
from  the  waters  ;  Aaron,  strong  mountain  ;  Pharaoh,  king  ;  and  so  on  for 
every  other  Hebrew  name. 

In  Greek,  Fhilippus  means  fond  of  horses  ;  Alexander,  a  powerful  auxilia- 
ry; Aristotle,  o}>tiniu3  hnis,  the  best  end  ;  Flato,  broad  shouldered  ;  Ache- 
ron, the  river  of  pain ;  Africa,  absence  of  cold,  &c. 

In  Latin,  Lucius  means  born  at  day -break ;  Tyberius,  born  near  the  Ty- 
ber ;  Servitcs,  born  in  bondage  ;  Fiso  is  derived  from  pisum,  a  pea  ;  Cicero, 
from  ciccr,  a  kind  of  pea.  Fabius  means  the  bean-man,  £ri.m\/aba ,  3.  bean  ; 
Scipio,  a  stick  ;  Catullus,  a  little  dog ;  and  so  on  for  an  immense  number  of 
other  proper  names. 

In  the  German  language  a  great  many  families  go  by  such  names  as  Wolf, 
a  wolf;  Bar,  a  bear  ;  Hoffman,  a  courtier,  &c.  That  language  has  furnished 
the  French  with  a  great  many  proper  names  all  derived  from  that  fruitful 
source  appellative  nouns,  with  and  v/ithout  epithets,  viz.  Bernard,  meaning 
a  courageous  man  ;  Z^onarc^,  courageous  like  a  iion  ;  Gerard,  hr3Lve  in  war  ; 
Sigcbcrt,  illustrious  by  victories  ;  Dagotert,  an  illustrious  warrior ;  Leopold, 
bold  as  a  lion,&c.  Other  proper  iiames  or;^inate  in  the  French  language  it- 
self, as  le  Blanc,  le  Noir,  /<?  Rouge,  Dt^cbamps,  ie  Maitre,  Coutelier,  Pellt- 
iier,  le  Fer,  Marchand,  Grand-jtiont,  Marichai,  Dubois,  Potier,  Chateau  neuf, 
Moreau,  isfc 

In  English,  we  find  among  proper  names  the  words  Black,  White,  Field, 
Smith,  Skinner,  Potter,  Page,  Hall,  Cook,  Shoemaker,  Butcher,  Bridge, 
Sec. 

In  the  language  of  ever)'  Indian  tribe  of  North- America  the  individuals  of 
each  are  designated  by  nouns  common. 

The  circumstance  of  every  language  taking,  in  every  age,  their  proper 
names  from  epithets  and  appellative  nouns,  proves,  beyond  a  doubt,  it  is  a 
suggestion  of  nature,  well  suited  to  analytical  views  and  the  invariable 
mode  of  proceeding  of  the  human  mind. 

The  uniformity  in  the  proceedings  of  the  human  mind  is  a  circumstance 
■which  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  attentive  observer. 
In  every  step  towards  any  improvement,  it  never  fails  to  proceed  on  the 
same  principles  and  to  observe  the  same  rules,  and  should  any  real  im- 
provement result  from  its  progress,  it  is  not  so  much  from  conceiving  new  rules, 
as  from  simplifying  those  with  which  it  was  before  acquainted. 

(7.)  It  is  always  contrary  to  the  interest  of  a  new  doctrine,  however  well 
grounded  its  principles  may  be,  to  be  opposed  to  an  ancient  one  supported  by 
illustrious  names.  It  is  unfortunately  the  case  with  ours.  Our  account  of  the 
origin  of  gender  in  language  for  the  names  of  things  or  inayiimate  objects, 
differs  very  materially  from  that  given  by  eminent  Grammarians,  among 
whom  Harris  and  Gebelin  stand  most  conspicuous.  Those  writers  seem  per- 
suaded that  men  perceived  a  kind  of  logical  foundation  for  making  those 
names  Masadine  or  Feminine.  The  ingenious  reasons  with  which  they  at- 
tempt to  support  their  hypotheses  afford  sufficient  ground,  without  even  having 


OF  LANGUAGE.  23 

-recourse  to  material  proofs,  to  contradict  openly  their  own  system  ;  for 
mankind  in  the  infancy  of  society,  pressed  by  and  surrounded,  as  they  were, 
with  dangers  of  every  kind,  a  prey  to  imperious  wants,  possessing  the  fa- 
culties of  the  mind  only  in  embryo  (as  language,  the  great  promoter  of  hu- 
man reason,  was  then  forming  by  almost  insensible  steps),  could  not  have  pro- 
ceeded, as  the  metaphysicians  and  philosophers  of  the  present  day  could  have 
done,  with  ever>-  requisite  advantage.  As  the  theory  of  the  two  gramma- 
rians we  have  just  mentioned,  appears  countenanced  by  facts,  let  us  oppose 
facts  to  facts,  and,  to  do  it  with  more  success,  let  us  oppose  to  these  they 
"have  adduced  in  support  of  their  doctrine  those  very  facts  themselves,  but 
better  explained. 

Harris,  whose  Htrnits  is  in  the  hands  of  every  English  scholar,  will  fur- 
nish us  with  the  verv  means  of  overturning  his  own  system.  Hermes  con- 
tains many  proofs  of  its  fallacy,  among  these  we  shall  mention  only  two, 
which,  as  he  seems  particularly  fond  of  dwelling  on  them,  we  trust,  will 
prove  amply  sufficient  to  clear  up  every  doubt  to  the  entire  conviction  of  the 
impartial  reader. 

"  We  may  conceive  (says  he)  such  substantives  to  have  been  considered 
«*  as  Masculine,  which  we're  conspicuous  for  the  attributes  of  imparting  or 
•  •  communicating  ;  or  which  were  by  nature  active,  strong  and  efficacious,  and 
'  *  that  indiscriminately  whether  to  good  or  to  ill ;  or  which  had  claim  to  emi- 
**  nence,  either  laudable  or  otherwise." 

"  The  Feminine^  on  the  contrary,  were  such  as  were  conspicuous  for  the 
**  attributes,  either  of  receiving,  of  containing,  or  of  producing  and  bringing 
««  forth  ;  or  which  had  more  of  the  passive  m  their  nature,  than  of  the  ac- 
**  tive ;  or  which  were  peculiarly  beautiful  and  amiable  ;  or  which  had  respect 
*'  to  such  excesses  as  were  rather  feminine  than  masculine." 

"  Upon  these  principles  the  two  greater  luminaries  were  considered,  one 
*'  as  Masculine,  the  other  as  Feminine,-  the  Sun,  as  Masculine,  from  commu- 
"  nicating  light  which  was  native  and  original,  as  well  as  from  the  vigorous 
«•  warmth  and  efficacy  of  his  rays  ;  the  Moon,  as  Feminine,  from  being  the 
**  Receptacle  only  of  another's  light,  and  from  shining  with  rays  more  deli- 
*'  cate  and  soft,  8cc.  &c. 

The  reader,  who  may  expect  we  are  now  about  opposing  oin*  own  autho- 
rity to  Mr.  Harris,  will  no  doubt  feel  himself  obliged  to  us  for  disap- 
pointing his  expectations,  in  presenting  him  with  a  quotation  suitable  to  our 
purpose,  from  that  justly  celebrated  philologist,  Mr.  Home  Tocke. 

"  Mr  Harris  (says  he)  is  very  unfortunate  in  the  very  outset  of  that  jt/^- 
*'  tie  kind  of'  reasoning,  (as  he  calls  it)  which  discerns  even  in  things  with- 
"  out  sex,  a  distant  analogy  to  that  great  natural  distinction." 

«•  For  his  very  first  instances — the  Sun  and  the  Moon — destroy  the  whole 
««  subtility  of  this  kind  of  reasoning.  For  Mr.Harris  ought  to  have  known  that 
"  in  many  Asiatic  Languages,  and  in  all  the  Northern  Languages  of  this  part 
*'  of  the  gbbe  which  we  inhabit,  and  particularly  in  our  Mother-Language,  the 
«'  Anglo-Saxon,  (from  which  Sun  and  Moon  are  immediately  derived  to  us.) 
«•  Sun  is  Feminine,  and  Moon  is  Masculine.  So  feminine  is  the  Sun,  that  our 
**  northern  Mythology  makes  her  the  JVife  of  Tuisco,"  &c. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  attributing  the  origin  of  gender  for  inanimate  things 
to  this  subtle  kind  of  reasoning  of  man  in  his  infant  state,  we  have  attempted 
to  shew  how  this  error  in  the  formation  of  language  originated  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  human  mind  itself. 

(8.)  Here  perhaps  it  may  be  thought  well  worth  spending  some  time 
in  inquiring,  why  the  English  language  should  stand  alone  among  those 
of  Europe,  in  asiigniHg  neither  the  Masculine  nor  Feminine  gender  to  inani- 
-inate  objects.  The  hazarding  a  few  conjectures  on  this  subject  appears  to 
MIC  the  more  necessary,  when  it  is  considered  that  such  grammarians  as 


24  PHILOSOPHY 

have  discovered  the  greatest  acuteness  in  their  researches,  have  passed  it  by 
in  silence. 

To  explain  this  singular  deviation  from  the  nature  of  other  languages,  I 
ahull  have  recourse  to  that  fruitful  principle  of  the  progress  of  the  human 
'.mind,  called,  the  association  of  ideas.  Whoever  is  acquainted  with  the 
English,  knows  that  by  the  help  of  the  pronouns  he  and  she  prefixed  to 
certain  nouns  of  animals,  the  male  or  female  thereof  are  clearly  designated  ; 
thus  they  say,  a  he  or  she  cat ;  -a.  he  or  she  goat ;  a  ^e  or  she  virolf,  &c. 

,  In  the  origin  of  the  English  language  there  was  no  room  for  error,  as  we 
have  shown  there  was  in  those  languages  that  impose  genders  on  the  names 
of  things,  as  when  giving  names  to  animals,  the  framers  of  this  lan- 
guage were  always  able  to  make  such  names  masculine  or  feminine  by  the 
addition  of  those  monosyllabic  terms  ;  terms  that  were,  perhaps,  first  devised 
to  express  an  idea  of  sexuality.  Whenever  it  was  necessary  to  impose 
names  on  things  without  sex,  in  speaking  of  them,  they  could  never  have 
made  use  of  the  words  be  or  she  ;  for  these  words,  having  been  placed  be- 
fore nouns  of  animals  to  designate  sexuality  in  the  beginning,  could  not  fail 
to  awaken  in  the  mind  the  idea  of  one  or  other  sex.  Natural  good  sense,  as 
yet  unimpaired,  could  not  think  of  employing  them,  when  discoursing  of 
things  without  sex.  The  genius  of  invention,  directed  by  reason  and  stimu- 
lated by  necessity,  discovered  the  word  it. 

An  exception  among  the  names  of  things  has  been  made  in  favor  of  a 
ship,  brig,  sfiow,  &.c.  as  the  feminine  gender  has  been  conferred  upon  such 
nouns.  This  seems  to  have  been  established  prophetically,  as  if  with  a  view 
of  personifying  those  objects  to  which  the  English  nation  should  be  indebt- 
ed for  so  nuicli  glory  and  prosperity. 

A  gender  having  thus  been  so  justly  denied  to  names  of  things,  it  would 
have  been  the  height  of  absurdity  to  allow  names  of  qualities  or  adjectives 
to  have  genders,  as  quality  is  evidently  without  sex  :  and  quality  being  sim- 
ple and  not  complex,  its  name  could  never  have  logically  been  made  plural. 
Hence  the  English  adjective  has  neither  gender  or  number  ;  and  forms  thereby 
a.  remarlvabie  contrast  to  the  adjectives  of  other  languages. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  25 

CONVERSATION  HI. 

OF  Tff^  ADJECTIVE  4ND  ABSTRACT  J^QU^. 


Scholar. 

WHAT  is  an  Adjective  ? 

Master. 

A  word  joined  to  a  Noun,  to  signify  that  the  object 
represented  by  the  Noun  is  possessed  of  some  property 
or  quality ;  as,  a  round  table,  une  table  ro7ide ;  a  red 
coat,  un  habit  rouge ;  the  words  round  and  red  are  Ad- 
jectives, because  they  denote  the  figure  and  colour  of 
|the  objects  tab/e  and  coat. 

Scholar. 

What  gave  rise  to  the  use  of  Adjectives  ? 
Master. 

The  comparison  of  objects  which,  more  or  less,  re- 
sembled or  dittercd  from  one  another.  When  man 
wanted  to  impart  this  resemblance  or  difference  to  his 
neighbour,  he  had,  at  first,  no  particular  terms  for  the 
purpose  ;  but,  inspired  by  his  wants,  he  happily  and  na- 
turally came  to  introduce  into  language  a  new  kind  of 
words,  which  have  been  called  Adjectives^  a  word  derived 
from  the  Latin  adjectus,  which  means  added  to* 
Scholar. 

Could  Adjectives  be  dispensed  with  ? 
Master. 

No :  for  without  them  language  would  no  longer 
exist.  Nouns  would  only  represent  objects  disrobed  of 
all  those  qualities,  properties,  forms,  and  actions  which 
render  them  so  highly  interesting  in  the  communication 
of  our  sentiments.  Without  the  assistance  of  Adjectives, 
the  loveliest  objects  of  nature  would  sink  into  indifference, 
and  the  finest  subjects  of  imagination  would  be  consigned 
to  oblivion  :  we  should,  in  fact,  be  deprived  of  the  faculty 
of  reasoning,  as  the  mere  repetition  of  solitary  words  to 
represent  certain  objects,  would  be  of  no  avail  to  express 
any  of  the  conceptions  of  the  human  mind. 

The  simplicity  of  language  is  divine  and  admirable  j 
*?^4»  as  there  is  some  relation  between  an  object  and  its 

VOL.  II.  E 


26  PHILOSOPHY 

qualities,  which  flow  from  the  very  nature  of  the  object 
itself,  the  Adjective  may  also  be  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  Noun^  as  the  latter  gave  rise  to  the  former. 

Scholar. 
Favour  me  with  some  further  explanation  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

Master. 
By  all  means.  Some  objects  possess  qualities  in  such 
an  eminent  degree,  that  the  very  mention  of  them  in- 
stantly conveys  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  those  quali- 
ties. For  instance  ;  as  a  mountain  is  a  very  strik- 
ing emblem  of  height  and  magnitude,  a  person  who 
would  inform  his  companions  that  he  had  seen  a  very 
tall  or  gigantic  man,  would  have  said  that  he  had  seen  a 
fnountain  man ;  for,  had  he  used  the  word  tall  to  convey 
that  idea,  he  would  not  have  been  understood,  until  he 
had  explained  to  them  the  meaning  which  he  intended  to 
convey  by  this  word.  He  was,  therefore,  in  order  to 
make  himself  intelligible,  obliged  to  resort  to  a  Noun, 
which  was  already  associated  in  their  minds  with  his 
prototype  ;  or,  suppose  he  were  desirous  of  extolling  the 
beauty  of  a  fine  woman,  he  might  happily  express  him- 
self by  saying,  that  her  shape  was  an  arrow  (meaning 
straight  or  slender) — her  complexion,  snow  (meaning 
rvhite) — that  her  eyes  were  heaven  (that  is  blue) — her 
cheeks,  roses  (red) — and  her  lips  cherries  or  strawberries 
(meaning  ruddy). 

Scholar. 

By  what  means  would  he  have  represented  a  gentle 
and  docile  child  t 

Master. 

Probably  by  the  word  lamb  ;  as,  a  lamb  child  ;  but  this 
is  a  very  imperfect  mode  of  caressing  the  quality.  The 
idea  of  size  conveyed  by  the  word  mountain^  is  far  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  tallest  man.  No  woman's  complexion, 
however  fair,  has  ever  equalled  the  matchless  white  of 
snow. 

Such  nouns  as,  at  first,  gave  to  savage  man  a  rude  idea 
of  the  qualities  discovered  in  certain  things,  were  gradu- 
ally replaced,  when  he  came  to  aim  at  precision,  by  the 
words  now  called  Adjectives^  which  were  nothing  but 
Nouns  themselves,  that  had  undergone  various  modifica- 
tions (1)  the  better  to  distinguish  the  quality  from  the 


OF  LANGUAGE.  27 

objects,  which  man,  by  comparing  them,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover their  relations,  had  learned  to  separate  or  abstract 
from  them.  This  alteration  in  the  Noun  to  signify  the 
quality,  greatly  improved  the  faculty  of  thinking,  as  by 
this  means  different  names  were  given  to  different  things  ; 
order  and  regularity  began  to  be  established  in  the  vm- 
derstanding  of  man,  and  this  was  the  result  of  the  faculty 
called  abstraction^  by  which  alone  mankind  are  placed  so 
far  above  the  brute  creation. 

Scholar. 

Does  the  French  Adjective  differ  from  the  English? 
Master. 

Yes,  materially. 

First.  The  English  Adjectives  have  neither  Gender 
nor  Number:  but  those  of  the  French  agree  with  their 
Nouns  in  both  Gender  and  Number, 

Second.     The  English  Adjective  precedes  the  Noun  ; 
the  French,  with  some  exceptions,  generally  follows. 
Scholar. 

You  have  already  explained  to  me  how  Nouns  became 
masculine  or  feminine  ;    but   I   cannot    conceive  how  a 
quality  can  be  said  to  have   g^ender  or  number,   as  it  has 
no  sex,   and  is  perfectly  simple? 
Master. 

A  good  observation.  A  quality,  indeed,  should  have 
neither  gender  nor  number.  Without  sex  or  quality,  it 
only  expresses  the  mode  of  an  object ;  and  is,  in  fact, 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  abstraction^  a  creature  of  the 
mind. 

.  The  gender  and  number  of  Adjectives  have  been  intro- 
duced into  some  languages,  to  manifest  more  immedi- 
ately their  dependence  on  the  noun  with  which  they  are 
connected.  Hence  proceeds  that  grammatical  harmony, 
termed  by  the  Latins,  Concordance^  which  the  French 
observe  with  great  exactness. 

Scholar. 

How  do  you  form  tht  feminine  Gtiidtv  of  French  Ad- 
jectives ? 

Master. 

The  feminine  Adjectives  must  always  end  in  e  mute  ; 
hence  it  happens,  that  Adjectives  ending  in  e  mute  in  the 
masculine^  have  no  occasion  to  change  that  termination 
to  denote  the  feminine  ;  so  they  say,  un  homme  aimable, 
une  femme  aimable ;  an  amiable  man,  an  amiable  wo- 
man :  des  hommes  aimabks^  des  femmes  aimables;  ami- 


^S  J^HILOSOPHV 

able  men,  amiable  women.  Adjectives  ending  differently, 
admit  of  an  e  mute,  to  form  Xht  feminine ;  as,  un  hommd 
savant^  une  femme  savante  (learned)  ;  un  joli  homme, 
une  jolie  femme  (pretty). 

With  some  Adjectives,  the  mere  addition  of  an  e  mute 
to  the  masculine  will  not  form  the  feminine.  By  attend- 
ing to  the  following  observations,  you  will  soon  become 
acquainted  with  those  irregularities. 

First.  Of  Adjectives  ending  in  c,  and  which  are  seven 
in  number,  three  require  the  addition  of  he  to  the  mas- 
culine to  form  xht  feminine;  as  blanc,  blancy^<r,  (white)  ; 
franc,  francAe  (sincere);  sec,  secA<?  (dry) :  Three  change 
the  c  into  que;  as,  public,  publi^'z/^  (public);  Turc,  Tur^'w^ 
(Turk);  caduc,  caduyw^  (decayed)  /and  the  last  receives 
the  addition  of  que ;  as  Grec,  Grtcque  (Greek). 

Second.  Adjectives  ending  in  f  form  the  feminine, 
by  changingyinto  ve  ;  as,  un  homme  vif  &  naif  (a  lively 
and  ingenuous  man)  ;  une  femme  viv^  &  naire  (a  lively 
and  ingenuous  woman). 

Third.  Adjectives  endin  gin  eur  or  eux^  changet  heir 
terminations  into  euse-\  ;  thus,  cet  homme  est  menteur  8c 
peureux  (this  man  is  false  and  cowardly)  ;  cette  femme 
est  menteu.?^  &  peureu^e  (this  woman  is  false  and  timid). 

Comparative  Adjectives  such  as  meilleur,  better  ;  SU' 
pSrieur^  superior ;  follow  the  general  rule  of  forming  the 
feminine^  by  adding  e  mute  to  the  masculine ;  as,  cet  homm^ 
est  meilleur,  cette  femme  est  meilleure. 

Fourth.  Adjectives  terminating  in  /  preceded  by  ^,  u 
or  «",  admit  the  addition  of  le  to  form  the  feminine  ;  as, 


■|"  Many  Nouns,  some  of  which  may  be  used  adjectively,  change  the 
termination  eur  into  rice.  They  are  the  following  :  Accusateur,  acteur, 
idministrateur,  admoniteur,  adorateur,  adulateur,  ambassadeur,  approba- 
teur,  auditeur,  bienfaiteur,  calomniateur,  coadjuteur,  competiteur,  concili- 
ateur,  conducteur,  conservateur,  consolateur,  cooperateur,  corrupteur, 
curateur,  debiteur,  delateur,  destructeur,  dictateur,  directeur,  dispensateur, 
dissipateur,  dissimulateur,  distributeur,  donateur,  electeur,  emulateur, 
ex^cuteur,  fauteur,  fornicateur,  generateur,  instigateur,  inoculateur,  intro- 
ducteur,  instituteur,  inventeur,  lecteur,  legislateur,  liberateur,  mod  rateur, 
moteur,  opcrateur,  persecuteur,  perturbateur,  procurateur,  protecteur,  re- 
ponciliateur,  reformateur,  spectateur,  seducteur,  testateur,  tuteur,  violateur, 
usurpateur,  zelateur. 

In  the  following  few,  the  feminine  terminates  in  resse ;  as  pecheur, 
"pccheresse ;  enchanteur,  en  chanterelle ;  vengeur,  vengfere^se;  and  the  two 
following  (which  are  law  terms)  demandeur,  demanderw^e ;  defendeur, 
dcfendere**e. 

Gouverneur  nriakes  gouvernawfe.  Empereur  makes  Impcraince.  Ora- 
tcur,  amateur  and  auteur  are  used  for  both  genders. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  i4 

cruel^  crUelle  (cruel)  ;  nul^  nulle  (null,  or  void)  ;  paretic 
pareille  (similar).  When  /  is  not  preceded  by  those 
vowels^  they  follow  the  general  rule  j  as  fatal^  fatale 
(fatal)   Sec. 

Fifth.  Adjectives  ending  in  n  preceded  by  o  or  ie 
double  the  n  and  add  e  mute  thereto,  in  forming  the 
feminine ;  as,  un  hoa  homme  (a  good  man)  ;  une  bonne 
femme  (a  good  woman)  ;  un  usage  ancien  mentionne 
dans  I'histoire  ancienne  (an  ancient  custom  recorded  in 
ancient  history). 

Others  ending  in  n  follow  the  general  rule ;  as,  un  habit 
brun  (a  brown  coat) ;  une  redingote  brune  (a  brown  great- 
coat). 

Sixth.  Adjectives  terminating  in  t  with  ^  or  o  going 
before  it,  double  that  consonant  and  take  e  mute  in  the 
formation  of  the  feminine,  as  in  the  fifth  rule  relative  to 
n  following  o  and  ie, 

EXAMPLE. 

Ce  verre  est  net  (this  glass  is  clean)  ;  la  rue  est  nette^ 
(the  street  is  clean)  ;un  sot  discours,  (a  foolish  discourse)  j 
une  sotte  demande,  (a  foolish  question). 

Secret,  complet,  cagot,  bigot,  devot,  idiot,  are  exceptions 
to  this  particular  rule,  and  follow  the  general  one,  as  they 
make  in  the  feminine,  secrete,  compete,  cagote,  devote^ 
idiot  e. 

Others  ending  in  t,  follow  the  general  rule,  as,  petity 
petite  (small  or  little) ;  brut,  brute  (rough) ;  plat,  plate 
(flat). 

There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  some  of  those  rules, 
which,  as  they  would  tend  to  impede  our  progress,  and 
as  the  principal  part  of  them  more  aptly  occur  among  the 
Adjectives  in  the  Practical  Part  of  this  work,  we  shall 
pass  over. 

Scholar. 

By  what  rules  do  you  form  the  plural  of  Adjectives, 
which,  as  you  have  already  observed,  agree  in  number^ 
with  the  Nouns,  they  attend  ? 

Master. 

I  am  glad  to  inform  you  that  the  same  rules  (if  you 
recollect  them)  prescribed  for  forming  the  plural  of 
Nouns,  will  serve  you,  without  exception,  for  that  of  the 
Adjectives* 


30  PHILOSOPHY 

The  greatest  part  of  the  Adjectives  ending  in  al  have 
no  masculine  in  the  plural;  as,  adverbial^  austral^  automnal^ 
boreal^  canonial^  conjugal^  fatal^  Jinal^  frugal^  ideal^  jovial^ 
litter al^  naval^  pascal^  pastoral^  pectoral^  trivial^  venal ; 
But  they  are  used  in  the  feminine />/z^ror/ ;  so  one  may 
say,  des  batailles  navales^  (sea  fights)  :  des  depensesynl- 
gales,  (frugal  expenses). 

Scholar. 

You  observed,  I  remember,  that  the  place  of  the  Ad- 
jective must  be  attended  to.     What  matters  it,  whether 
it  goes  before  or  after  the  Noun  ? 
Master. 

Very  great,  with  regard  to  particular  Adjectives  ;  for 
instance,  the  French  adjective  honncte  placed  before  a 
noun  signifies  honest ;  and  after  the  noun  it  implies  civil 
or  polite  ;  as,  c'est  un  honnete  homme,  (he  is  an  honest 
man);  c'est  un  homme  honnete^  (he  is  a  polite  man).  Hap- 
pily, however,  but  few  Adjectives  change  their  meaning 
with  their  situation.  In  the  Practical  Part  o£  this  Treatise, 
you  might  have  observed  a  list  of  such  as  chiefly  merit 
attention. 

With  regard  to  those  which,  contrary  to  the  genius  of 
the  English  language,  follow  their  Nouns^  they  are  consi- 
derably the  most  numerous.  Some  of  these  latter,  how- 
ever, without  altering  the  sense,  may  be  placed  before 
their  Nouns.  The  poets  enjoy  this  privilege  in  a  greater 
latitude  than  the  prose-writers,  and  call  their  deviation 
from  the  beaten  track  of  language  a  poetical  licence^ 
licence  poetique.  Your  taste  gradually  improved  by 
reading  the  most  elegant  French  writers,  and  attending 
to  polite  custom,  in  that  particular,  will  be  your  best 
guide. 

Scholar. 

To  the  best  of  my  recollection,  in  the  definition  of  the 
Noun,  I  think  that  you  observed  that  the  abstract  Noun 
proceeded  from  the  Adjective;  and  you  have  already 
shown  me  how  the  common  Noun  generated  the  Adjec- 
tive. I  cannot  help  admiring  this  reciprocal  action  and  re- 
action of  the  two  principal  parts  of  speech,  on  each  other, 
and  am  very  anxious  to  know  how  the  Adjective  could 
have  produced  the  abstract  Noun. 
Master. 

Men  observing  that  white  objects  made  a  peculiar  im- 
pression on   the  organ  of  vision,  called  those   objects 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


-white^  blanc ;  but  afterwards,  in  order  more  particularly 
to  mark  the  point  by  which  all  white  things  resembled 
one  another  in  common,  they  invented  the  word  white- 
ness, blancheur,  from  the  Adjective  white,  blanc;  but  ob-  . 
serve,  that  there  is  no  such  external  being  as  whiteness; 
it  is  only  a  creature  of  the  mind  that  receives  a  kind  of 
nominal  existence  from  the  abstraction  of  our  common 
resemblance  of  things,  by  which  it  becomes  an  object  of 
our  thoughts  or  conversation.  Thus  a  term  denoting  an 
/Wecf/ existence,  becomes  2i  Noun,  and  mixed  with  those 
expressing  the  objects  of  our  senses,  it  adopts  a  similar 
termination,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  man  becomes  a 
soldier  by  assuming  the  uniform  of  a  regiment. 

Here  follow  some  examples  in  the  French  language. 

Redness, 
length, 
width, 
strength, 
bravery, 
virtue, 
wisdom, 
generosity. 

Scholar. 

I  can  pretty  easily  trace,  with  the  help  of  analogy,  the 
abstract  Nouns  to  their  origin  in  Adjectives  ;  but  there 
are  many  that  I  cannot,  in  spite  of  the  most  diligent  en- 
deavours, trace  to  the  Adjectives  that  generated  them. 
As  you  have  established  as  a  general  principle,  that  the 
abstract  Noun  sprung  from  the  Adjective,  I  request  you 
may  place  its  universality  beyond  all  doubt,  by  showing 
me  the  origin  of  some  particular  abstract  Nouns  from 
their  respective  Adjectives  ;  for  example,  of  don,  a  gift ; 
dette,  a  debt :  amour,  love  ;  haine,  hatred. 
Master. 

I  am  really  indebted  to  you  for  the  difficulty  you  pro- 
pose to  me,  as  the  solving  it  will  throw  some  light  on  the 
nature  of  the  Adjective  and  the  Verb,  which  will  soon  be 
the  object  of  our  investigation. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  Qualities  in  the  objects  of 
nature  :  The  first  may  be  denominated  Declarative  ;  the 
second  Active  ;  the  third  Passive.  The  Declarative  Qua- 
lities are  permanent  in  objects,  because  they  are  derived 


Rouge, 

Long, 

Large, 

Fort, 

Brave, 

Red,  produced 

long, 

wide, 

strong, 

brave. 

Rougeur, 
longueur, 
largeur, 
force, 
bravoure. 

Vertueux, 

virtuous, 

vertu. 

Sage, 
Genereux, 

wise, 
generous, 

sagesse, 
generosite. 

32  PHILOSOPHY 

from  the^r  very  nature,  these  constitute  the  forms  and  ap- 
pearances thereof ;  such  are  those  expressed  by  the  words, 
blanc^  roiige^  gris^  long,  large^  carre.  The  Active  Quali- 
ties are  transitory  and  instantaneous ;  such  as  belong  to 
mankind,  for  no  action  can  be  everlasting,  unless  it  is 
supposed  to  exist  in  an  Eternal  Being  ;  such  are  those  ex- 
pressed by  the  active  Ad]tcti\ts^  or  Participles  iprestnt ; 
a  donnant,  giving  ;  devant^  owing  ;  aimant,  loving  ;  hais- 
sant^  hating,  &:c. 

I  have  explained  to  you  how  men  came  to  form  such 
words  as  hlancheiir^  and  the  like.  Following  the  same 
process  they  greatly  enriched  the  nomenclature  of  theij: 
abstract  Nouns,  by  deducing  from  their  active  Adjectives 
or  Participles  present  a  numerous  host  of  abstract  Nouns  ; 
so  don  was  generated  by  donnant;  dette  by  devant ;  amour 
by  aimant ;  ha^ne  by  hdissant.  Sec.  I  must  observe  to  you, 
that  were  it  not  for  the  invention  of  such  terms,  it  would 
have  been  impossible  for  mankind  to  make  the  general 
qualities  of  whatever  exists  the  object  of  their  compari- 
son, investigation,  or  reflection,  and  thereby  to  come  at 
the  discovery  of  their  use,  properties.  Sec.  As  the  exist- 
ence of  those  qualities  apart  from  the  objects  with  which 
they  really  coexist,  is  the  work  of  the  mind  alone,  and  has 
no  other  support  but  the  denominations  themselves  by 
means  of  which  the  mind  takes  hold  of  them,  just  as  we 
do  of  a  pitcher  by  means  of  its  handle. 

The  Passive  Qualities,  which  are  the  last  we  notice  in 
the  objects  of  nature,  are  transitory  like  the  Active  ones, 
the  result  of  which  they  are  ;  as  there  can  be  no  action 
without  some  object  in  view  to  act  upon,  which  receiving 
(if  I  may  be  allowed  the  expression)  the  blow  of  the  ac- 
tion, may  therefore  be  denominated  Patient  or  Passive  ; 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  passive  Adjectives,  donnS^ 
given  ;  r/«,  owed  ;  aime^  loved  ;  hdi\  hated. 
Scholar. 

Have  you  concluded  your  remarks  on  the  Adjective  ? 
Master. 

No  :  I  have  still  to  examine  their  degrees  of  significa" 
tion  and  comparison,  and  then  to  proceed  to  what  ancient 
Grammarians  term  their  regimen;  but  what  some   mo- 
dern French  ones,  with  more  propriety,  term  complement* 
Scholar. 

Please  therefore  to  continue  your  observations. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  33 

Master. 

Men  soon  perceived  that  objects  were  not  equally  en- 
dowed with  those  qualities  to  which  they  had  givea 
names  ;  and  rather  than  form  new  Adjectives  to  express 
this  difference  (which  would  swell  them  to  an  immense 
catalogue)  they  naturally  used  Nouns  denoting  increase 
or  diminution  in  order  to  modify  the  Adjective  or  give 
it  a  degree  of  signijication  which  it  did  not  possess  in 
itself. 

Scholar. 

How  many  degrees  of  signification  may  be  expressed 
with  the  help  of  an  Adjective  r 

Master. 

Three  ;  the  frst  is  the  same  with  the  primitive  signi- 
fication of  the  word  ;  as,  good^  bon  ;  strong,  fort;  rich, 
riche  :  It  is  called  positive. 

The  second  is  the  Jirst  reduced  below  its  standard,  by 
the  addition  of  such  words  as  peu,  giiere,  little  ;  passa^ 
ble)nent,  tolerably :  Examples,  II  est  peic  sage,  literally, 
he  is  little  wise  ;  or,  in  better  terms,  he  has  little  wisdom 
— Ce  vin-U  n'est^^//drr^  bon,  that  wine  is  little  good — Je  la 
trouve  passablemcnt  aimable,  I  find  her  tolerably  amia- 
ble :  It  may  be  called  diminutive. 

The  third  is  the  first  extended  beyond  its  original 
meaning  with  the  help  of  the  worcXsfort,  tr  s,  bien,  very  ; 
extremement,  extremely ;  injiniment,  infinitely.  Sec.  as, 
II  est  fort,  trcs,  or  bien  riche,  he  is  very  rich — Dieu  est 
infniment  sage,  God  is  infnitely  wise  :  It  may  be  called 
augmentative, 

N.  B.  The  word  archi  placed  before  some  words  in 
the  familiar  style,  extends  their  signification  to  a  very 
high  degree  :   so  they  say  in  French,  il  est  archi-sot,  fou, 
vilain,  &c.  he  is  an  arrant  fool,  madman,  miser.  Sec. 
Scholar. 

How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there  ? 
Master. 

Three  also.  The  signification  of  an  Adjective  com- 
prehended in  the  ratio  of  comparison  is  either  levelled 
to  equality,  sunk  to  inferiority,  or  raised  to  superiority, 
in  proportion  as  one  degree  is  equal,  inferior  or  superior 
to  the  other. 

The  mode  of  comparing  consists  in  placing  before  the 
Adjective,  the  following  words,  viz.  aussi,  as,  to  express 
equality  :  moins,  less,  to  denote  inferiority  ;  and  plus, 
more,  to  signify  superiority :  as,  elle  est  aussi  aimable 

VOL.    II.  F 


34  PHILOSOPHY 

que  vous,  she  is  as  amiable  as  you  ;  Je  suis  moms  avance 
que  lui,  I  am  less  forward  than  he  ;  Vous  it^s  plus  ']oX\q 
qu'elle,  you  are  7nore  pretty  than  she. 

I  request  your  attention  to  the  foregoing  examples  pre- 
sented to  your  view,  as  a  true  model  to  extend  or  contract 
the  signification  of  qualities,  and  also  to  determine  their 
comparison.  Your  respect  for  my  instructions,  on  this 
occasion,  will  greatly  facilitate  your  progress  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  French  language. 
Scholar* 

What  distinction  do  you  make  between  the  degrees  of 
signification  and  comparison  of  Adjectives  ? 
Master. 

From  what  has  been  already  advanced,  the  degrees  of 
signification  are  considered  as  independent ;  the  degrees 
of  comparison  as  dependent ;  from  the  first  standing  alone, 
and  from  the  last  being  always  compared  with  other  Ad- 
jectives (understood)  by  which  they  exist. 
Scholar. 

What  is  commonly  meant  by  superlative  ? 
Master. 

When  the  quality  has  reached  its  utmost  degree  of  ex- 
tension or  diminution,  it  must  be  expressed  in  the  super- 
lative :  it  is  done  (in  French)  by  placing  before  it,  the 
words  ley  la^  les^^  immediately  preceding  the  words  plus^ 
more  ;  moins^  less  ;  as,  il  est  le  plus  studieux,  he  is  the 
most  diligent ;  elle  est  la  plus  studieuse,  she  is  the  most 
diligent ;  ils  sont  les  plus  studieux — elles  sont  les  plus 
studieu«es,  they  are  the  most  studious. 
Scholar* 

Are  those  rules  so  general  as  to  admit  of  no  exception  ? 
Master. 

No  :  there  are  however  three  Adjectives  only,  which 
express  the  comparative  and  superlative^  without  the  help 
of  moinsy  plus^  &c.  as  bon^  good  ;  meilleur^  better ;  le 
meilleur^  the  best ;  mauvais^  bad ;  pire^  worse  ;  le  pire^ 
the  worst;  petit,  little  ;  moindre^  Itss  \  le  moindre,  the 
least* 

You  must  observe,  however,  that  mauvais  and  petit  ad- 
mit also  of  plus  and  le plus^  to  express  the  cofnparative 
and  superlative^  and  therefore  may  be  considered  as 
having  two  comparatives. 

Scholar. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  regimen  or  cojnplement  of 
an  Adjective  ? 


OF  LANGUAGE.  35 

Master. 
It  Is  a  word^  a  Noun  or  a  Verb^  which  is  necessary  to 
some  Adjectives  to  complete  their  respective  meanings  as 
it  would  be  vague  without  it.  The  relation  of  the  Ad- 
jective to  that  necessary  word  is  manifested  by  the  words 
de^  a,  or  pour y  which  immediately  yb//ow  it.  These  terms 
called  Prepositions^  extending  its  influence  to  the  next 
word,  may  not  unaptly  be  compared  to  a  conduit  con- 
veying the  water  of  a  fountain  to  a  particular  spot. 

EXAMPLES. 

Je  suis  bien  aise  de  son  rctablissement.  I  am  overjoyed  at  his  recovery, 

II  est  indigne  de  vivre.  He  is  unworthy  ofYw'mg. 

Tous  les  hommes  sont  sujets  a  la  mort.  All  men  are  liable  to  death. 

II  est  enclin  a  mcdire.  He  is  inclined  to  slander. 

I  must  further  observe  that  there  are  Adjectives  which 
having  no  complement^  when  used  in  a  general  sense,  re- 
quire one  when  applied  in  a  particular  sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

On  m'a  dit  qu'il  vivait  content.  I  was  told  he  lived  content. 

Content  du  simple  nccessaire,  je  vis     Content  with   mere  necessaries,    I 
heureux.  live  happy. 

Whenever  an  Adjective  requires  a,  particular  Preposi- 
tion after  it,  no  other  must  be  used  :  thus  the  Adjective 
pret  requiring  d  after  it,  the  following  modes  of  speaking 
and  the  like,  though  used  by  many  Frenchmen,  are  in- 
correct;  Je  suis  pr^lt  de  parti r,  I  am  ready  to  set  off.  The 
Preposition  d  must  be  substitut^cj  for  the  Preposition  de» 


NOTE  ON  THE  ADJECTIVE. 


(1.)  It  appears  impossible  to  account  for  the  invention  of  Adjectives, 
unless  we  have  recourse  to  their  origin  from  the  Nouns  themselves.  For 
as  the  quality  does  not  exist  in  abstracto  (as  we  make  it  in  language)  ; 
but  in  concreto  with  the  objects  themselves,  in  order  to  form  Adjectives 
independent  of  their  progenitors,  the  Nouns,  we  must  suppose  the  fram- 
ers  of  language  to  have  imposed  arbitrary  terms,  and  terms  not  founded 
ia  nature  and  analogy,  on  qualities.    The  consequence  of  which  would 


36  PHILOSOPHY 

have  been,  that  when  any  individual  v^ished  to  signify  the  quality  of  any 
object  in  abstracto,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  assemble  the  whole 
family  of  his  fellows  to  acquaint  them  with  the  idea  of  which  he  intended 
that  sign  should  be  the  representative  ;  this  it  should  seem,  must  have 
been  impossible.  But  supposing,  for  a  moment,  that  men  should  have 
adopted  arbitrary  terms,  and  have  understood  the  qualities  of  things  by 
those  terms,  how  could  memory,  as  yet  in  embryo,  have  retained  such 
words  as  were  founded  in  whim,  caprice,  or  chance,  instead  of  nature  and 
the  resetnblance  of  things  ? 

It  is  not  therefore  by  the  immediate  invention  of  words  different  from 
the  Substantives,  that  we  are  to  explain  the  introduction  of  Adjectives 
into  language,  but  by  the  gradual  changes  that  Nouns  of  substance,  applied 
in  the  infancy  of  language  to  other  Nouns  to  qualify  them,  underwent ; 
changes  or  modifications  that  altered  their  form  so  very  much,  that  in  a 
number  of  years  after  they  had  been  first  used,  it  was  often  impossible  to 
trace  thenn  back  to  the  Nouns  from  which  they  were  generated :  add  to 
this,  that  the  various  families  of  mankind  scattered  here  and  there  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe,  having  made  a  different  progress  in  abstracting  or  ge- 
neralizing, those  that  had  been  nnore  successful  from  peculiarly  favorable 
circumstances,  enriched  at  once  the  language  of  their  neighbours  with  a 
number  of  such  expressions  that  bore  no  analogy  with  any  known  Sub- 
stantives in  their  language. 

As  the  reader  would  perhaps  be  glad  to  see  some  instances  of  Nouns 
becoming  Adjectives  by  undergoing  various  modifications,  I  will  select  a 
few  from  the  Latin. 

With  the  Noun  caput  which  means  a  head,  the  Latins  made  the 

Adjectives. 
CAP- AX,  capable.,  &.c. 
CAP-iTAjLis,  Huhate'ver  relates  to  the  heady   life,  and 

other  important  things. 
CAP-iTATus,  which  signifies  headed. 
CAP-iTosTJS,  which  IS  great  headed,  hard  headed. 
CAP-Tiosus,  which  \% fallacious,  cavilling,  sophistical, 

suspicious,  hurful,  prejudicial,  captious. 

The  French  with  their  Noun  tete,  which  means  a  head,  made  the  Ad- 
jectives tetu,  entete,  stubborn,  which  corresponds  with  capitosus,  and  in- 
stead of  deriving  other  Adjectives  from  the  word  the  to  correspond  with 
the  other  Latin  Adjectives  derived  from  caput,  they  borrowed  them  from 
the  Latin  ;  and  from  capitalis,  captiosus  th€y  made  the  Adjectives  capi- 
tal, captieux. 

This  last  circumstance  has  thrown  great  obscurity  on  the  origin  of  Ad- 
jectives and  prevented  philosophical  Grammarians  from  discovering  that 
Adjectives  were  nothing  but  the  primitive  Nouns,  which  had  undergone 
some  modifications  in  the  Syllables  of  which  they  are  composed. 

Some  Philosophers  who  have  written  on  language  and  attempted  vain- 
ly  to  explain  the  difficulties  attending  its  formation  would  have  been  ex- 
ceedingly surprised  had  our  theory  been  published  during  their  lives; 
for  we  have  recourse  to  nothing  extraordinary  to  explain  the  origin  of 
languages.  We  suppose  no  other  words  necessary  to  create  a  language, 
but  primitive  Nouns  given  by  nature  from  the  resemblance  of  things, 
and  by  analogy  and  the  help  of  those  primitives  we  form  a  language,  in 
which  all  the  parts  of  Speech  set  forth  by  Grammarians,  are  to  be  found. 
The  difference  of  our  results  entirely  proceeds  from  the  difference  of  our 
methods.  With  regard  to  us,  we  began  our  inquiries  with  an  idea  that 
words  could  not  be  arbitrary  signs,  as  the  use  of  each  of  them  evidently 


OF  LANGUAGE.  37 

shows  a  foundation  for  adopting  the  same,  and  not  a  whim  or  silly  caprice 
in  the  first  founders  of  language. 

They,  on  the  contrary,  entered  the  career  with  a  prepossession  that 
words  were  arbitrary  signs  ;  they  thought  therefore  they  had  nothing  else 
to  do  but  to  trust  to  their  imagination  to  explain  the  formation  of  lan- 
guage, and  that  the  most  ingenious  theory  must  be  the  best ;  which  won- 
derfully stimulated  their  genius  to  invention.  The  result  of  their  labours 
was  however  nothing  but  learned  absurdities,  though  very  ingenious,  in- 
deed, from  the  difficulties  they  laboured  under,  to  wind  up  any  theory 
whatever,  as  they  attempted  to  explain  a  language,  not  such  as  it  was 
formed,  but  such  as  they  conceived  it  themselves  to  have  been  formed. 

How  could  the  principle  from  which  they  deduced  their  doctrine  be 
true,  that  words  were  invented  in  an  arbitrary  manner  ?  "  For  let  us  (says 
Condillac  with  his  usual  acuteness  of  investigation),  suppose  a  language 
so  arbitrary  that  analogy  would  have  neither  determined  the  choice  of 
words,  nor  their  different  acceptations,  this  language  would  be  a  jargon 
that  nobody  could  learn :  one  would  not  be  able  to  reason  by  the  help 
thereof,  and  still  less  able  to  invent.'* 

I  shall  now  observe,  that  the  more  simple  a  method  is,  the  more  effec- 
tual, because  it  comes  the  nearer  to  Analysis,  the  most  perfect  of  all  me- 
thods which  is  simplicity  itself,  as  it  consists  in  nothing  else  but  decom- 
position and  recomposition.  It  is  the  secret  of  all  the  discoveries  that  have 
bee;i  made  and  will  be  made  to  the  end  of  the  world.  It  is  the  analytical 
method  which  has  guided  me  in  the  course  of  this  work,  and  I  hope  I 
have  seldom  deviated  from  it.  To  it  I  owe  the  astonishing  simplicity  of 
the  mode  of  tuition  I  propose,  which  places  the  acquisition  of  a  language 
within  the  reach  of  every  capacity. 


38  PHILOSOPHY 

CONVERSATION  IV, 

OF  THE  ARTICLE, 


Scholar. 
ON  what  subject  do  you  mean  to  treat  next  ? 

Master. 

The  Article.  Though  the  discovery  or  use  of  the  Verb 

immediately  followed  that  of  the  Adjective,  j^et  as  the 

Article  generally  precedes  the  Noun  of  which  it  may  be 

called  the  Herald^  its  dependence  on  that  part  of  Speech 

renders  it  so  interesting  as  next  to  claim  our  attention. 

Scholar. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  Article  ? 

Master. 
A  word  generally  placed  before  the  Noun  common, 
to  fix  or  determine  its  sense,  with  such  accuracy  as  to 
distinguish  the  object  it  represents  from  all  others  of  the 
same  or  of  a  different  species,  and  by  that  means  to  ar- 
rest exclusively  the  attention  of  the  mind.  We  have 
several  kinds  of  Articles  in  French  which  are  occasion- 
ally used  to  fix  and  determine  the  signification  of  the 
^oun. 

Scholar. 
How  many  kinds  of  Articles  ? 
Master. 
Three  principal :  1st.  Uii  (masculine),  une  (feminine), 
a  or  an. 

2d.  Z^,  m.  la^  fem.  singular  ;  and  les  of  both  genders, 
plural ;  all  of  which  are  expressed  by  the  single  English 
Article  the, 

3d.  Ce^  m.  cette^  f.  sing,  this  or  that ;  and  ces  of  both 
genders,  plur.  these  or  those. 

The  first  is  called  the  Declarative  Article  ;  the  second 
the  Indicative  ;  and  the  third  the  Demonstrative, 
Scholar. 
Will  you  have  the  goodness  to  make  me  sensible   of 
the  distinction  betw^een  those  three  Articles,  that  I  may 
be  enabled  to  employ  them  in  their  proper  places  ? 


OF  LANGUAGE.  S» 

Master. 

With  infinite  pleasure  ;  and  to  throw  more  light  on 
this  subject,  I  shall  borrow  a  few  sentences  from  that 
excellent  work  of  Sicard,  entitled  "  Elemens  de  Gram- 
maire  generate  appliques  u  la  langue  Franfalse.^^ 

"  If  there  were  several  objects  before  you,  such  as 
"  knives,  penkniveSy  pens,  keys,  &c.  and  that  in  order 
"  to  cut  bread  or  any  thing  else,  you  stood  in  need  of 
"  one  of  those  knives  ;  were  they  all  of  different  kinds 
*'  and  before  your  eyes,  what  would  you  say  to  obtain 
"  one  ?  You  would  say,  give  me  a  knife.  By  thus  ex- 
"  pressing  yourself  in  asking  for  a  knife ,  would  it  be  your 
'"  intention  to  require  but  one  knife,  to  specify  the  nurii' 
*'  ber  only,  and  not  ask  for  two  P  By  no  means,  would 
'*  you  refuse  the  one,  which  might  be  offered  to  you  al- 
*'  leging  it  was  not  the  one  you  called  for  ?  No  !  All 
"  would  be  equally  indifferent  to  you  ;  you  would  not 
"  have  said  a  knife,  that  a  penknife  should  not  be  given 
"  to  you  ;  to  determine  the  kind  would  have  been  your 
"  intention  :  thus,  in  that  case,  one,  a  word  of  number, 
*'  would  not  have  occurred  to  you,  but  an  Article,  a  de- 
"  finite  word,  which  we  may  call  a  declarative  Article." 

^'  If  it  be  not  only  a  k7iije  that  you  wish  for,  but  such 
"  a  particular  knife  and  no  other,  your  idea  is  no  longer 
"  so  vague,  so  unfixed ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  ex- 
"  act.  The  first  Article,  which  only  aims  to  declare  the 
*'  object  and  separate  it  from  the  rest,  in  order  to  show 
"  and  particularize  it,  without  determining  the  choice, 
"  is  no  longer  the  proper  word  ;  you  must  employ  a  term 
"  devoted  to  fix  the  idea,  to  place  the  object  before  vour 
"  eyes,  if  you  would  have  that  knife  only  which  you  de- 
"  mand ;  the  Article,  in  such  case,  is  this,  and  not  a  or  an» 
"  This  knife  is  already  known  to  you,  and  the  person, 
"  who  has  given  it  to  you  ;  and  if  it  be  no  longer  in  his 
"  view  or  yours,  and  should  you  still  demand  it,  you  do 
"  not  use  a  or  a7i ;  it  is  known  ;  you  no  longer  say  this^ 
''  it  is  not  in  your  view,  and  you  cannot  show  it ;  you 
"  say  the  knife,  and  you  are  understood.  For  it  is 
"  just  as  if  I  had  said,  give  me  the  knife  you  have  already 
"  given  me, 

"  There  are  then  three  modes  of  determining  the  ob- 
"  ject  of  our  investigation,  and  those  three  modes  gave 
"  rise  to  three  words  belonging  to  the  same  class,  which 
^'  words  are  the  Articles  un,  ce,  le,  without  excluding 
"  the  other  terms  relative  to  them." 


40  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 

Having  lately  glanced  over  the  pages  of  a  celebrated 
French  Grammar,  I  found  that  the  Articles  as  well  as 
the   Nouns,  have  cases,  and   are  declined  together.     I 
hope  you  will  explain  more  fully  this  particular. 
Master. 

It  is  impossible,  as  neither  Nouns  nor  Articles  have 
cases,  nor  can  they  be  declined  in  French  or  English  ; 
you  will  be  sensible  of  this  when  the  case  and  declension 
are  explained  to  you. 

Those  words,  which  have  no  meaning,  when  applied 
to  our  Nouns,  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  who  really  had  cases  and  declensions  in  their 
language. 

A  case  is  the  change  of  termination  which  a  Noun 
undergoes  in  performing  its  part  in  a  sentence  ;  and  as  a 
Noun  may  have  six  different  parts  to  perform,  it  also 
has  six  cases. 

The  declension  of  a  Noun  comprehends  all  its  cases, 
and  to  decline  a  Noun  is  to  review  each  of  its  cases  in 
succession. 

Scholar. 

How  do  you,  in  French,  supply  the  place  of  those  ter- 
minations which,  by  the  Latins,  were  thought  necessary 
to  express  the  different  parts  a  Noun  may  perform  in  a 
sentence  ? 

Master. 

We,  as  the  English,  first  give  the  Noun  a  particular 
place  in  the  phrase  which  denotes  whether  it  is  consider- 
ed as  the  subject  or  object  of  the  action  expressed  by 
the  Verb.  This  enables  us  to  render  the  two  cases  de- 
nominated by  the  Latins  nominative  and  accusative.  To 
denote  also  other  relations  of  the  Noun  we  have  recourse 
to  general  terms  ;  these  are  the  Prepositions  a,  de^  or  par ^ 
which,  being  placed  before  the  Nouns  and  their  Articles, 
clearly  express  these  relations. 

As  the  Article  is  never  used  independent  of  the  Noun, 
for  the  sake  of  which  it  was  instituted,  I  shall  introduce 
examples  of  the  three  Articles  already  mentioned,  viz. 

The  declarative  Article  un  or  une  before  a  Noun  is 
thus  exemplified,  masculine  and  feminine. 

U71  homme  (ou  une  femme)  m'a  parlc.     A  man  (or  woman)  has  spoken 

to  me. 
J'ai  vu  un  homme,  une  femme.  I  have  seen  a  man,  a  woman. 

II  parle  d'  un  homme,  di'me  femme.         He  speaks  of  a  man,  of  a  woman. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


41 


Je  I'ai  re^u  d'wn  homme,  d'une  fern-  I  received  it  from  a  man,  from  a 

me.  woman. 

Jfai  donn^  de  I'argent  a  un  homme  a  I  have  given  money  to  a  man,  to  a 

une  femme.  woman. 

The  indicative  Article  /^,  the,  before  a  Noun  masculine. 
EXAMPLES. 

Le  Roi  a.  prononcc  son  discours.         The  King  has  delivered  his  speech. 

Avez  vous  vu  passer  le  Roi  ?  Have  you  seen  the  King  pass  ? 

II  est  montc  dans  le  carrosse  du  Roi.  He  went  in  tjbe  coach  of  the  King,  or 

in  ti>e  King's  coach. 
II  vint  de  la  part  du  Roi.  He  came  from  tbe  King. 

II  a  ^te  prcsentc  au  Roi.  He  was  presented  to  tbe  King. 

The  indicative  Article  la  preceding  the  Noun  femi- 
nine, thus. 


La  Reine  est  aimce  de  son  peuple. 
II  conduisit  la  Reine  a  I'cglise. 
C'est  un  present  de  la  Reine. 
EUe  I'a  re^u  de  la  Reine. 
EUe  I'ofFrit  a  la  Reine. 


Tbe  Queen  is  loved  by  the  people. 
He  conducted  tbe  Queen  to  church. 
It  is  a  gift  of  tbe  Queen. 
She  has  received  it  from  tbe  Queen. 
She  oflfered  it  to  tbe  Queen. 

The  indicative  Article  le  or  la  becomes  /',  de  l\  a  /'> 
before  a  singular  Noun  masculine  or  feminine,  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel  or  h  mute.  This  elision  is  merely  used 
for  the  sake  of  harmony. — Examples. 


"  fP  esprit,  m. 
<{  ^(p^  esprit. 
La  P  esprit, 

fP  ame,  f. 

"^  deP  ame, 

{J.  P  ame, 

p/'  homme,  m. 

tdeP  homme, 
a  P  homme. 


the  mind. 

of  or  from  the  mind. 

to  the  mind. 

the  soul. 

of  or  from  the  soul. 

to  the  soul. 

the  man. 

of  or  from  the  man. 

to  the  man. 


The  indicative  Article  les  invariably  corresponds  with 
both  genders  in  the  plural,  as. 


"  fles  peres,  m. 
•^  des  peres, 
\jaux  peres, 
fles  meres,  f. 
<^  des  meres, 
\jaux  meres, 
^les  amis,  m. 
-^  des  amis, 
^  \jmx  amis, 

VOL.   II. 


the  fathers. 

of  or  from  the  fathers. 

to  the  fathers. 

the  mothers. 

of  or  from  the  mothers. 

to  the  mothers. 

the  friends. 

of  or  from  the  friends, 

to  the  friends. 

G 


42  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 

You  have  observed,  that  Prepositions  joined  to  the 
Articles  preceding  Nouns  common,  are  used  instead  of 
the  cases  or  varying  terminations  of  the  Greeks  and  La- 
tins ;  but  I  do  not  observe  any  Prepositions  before  aw, 
^M,^singular,  and  aux^  des^  plural,  expressed  in  English 
by  to  the  and  of  or  from  the  ? 

Master. 

I  will  explain  this  difficulty.  You  must  know,  that  the 
article  au  is  the  contraction  of  a  le ;  du  of  de  le;  aux  of 
a  les  ;  and  des  of  de  les, 

I  am  much  pleased  with  your  remark,  as  I  think  it  will 
lead  you  to  avoid  a  very  common  and  natural  solecism, 
which  the  English  learner  is  often  apt  to  slide  into,  by 
frequently  saying  a  le  for  au*  j  de  le  for  du;     les  for 
aux ;  and  de  les  for  des. 

Scholar. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  indefinite  and  partitive  arti- 
cles, which,  I  find,  are  frequently  mentioned  in  all  the 
French  Grammars  that  have  fallen  into  my  hands  ? 
Master. 

There  can  be  no  indefinite  article  ;  for  as  that  part  of 
Speech  is  used  to  define  or  limit  the  Noun,  it  is  an  abso- 
lute contradiction  to  say,  there  are  articles  or  defining 
words,  which  do  not  define^  or  are  indefinite, 

Du  and  des  denominated  partitive  articles,  are  abridg- 
ed by  contraction  (as  we  have  before  noticed)  from  de  le 
and  de  les^  and  used  in  the  beginning  or  middle  of  a  sen- 
tence, apparently  independent  of  a  preceding  word,  which, 
though  not  expressed,  is  understood ;  as,  du  pain  &  de 
/'eau  me  suffisent  j  bread  and  water  are  sufficient  for  me  : 
donnez  moi  du  cresson  &  des  navets  ;  give  me  some 
cresses  and  turnips  :  The  words  une  quantite,  un  nombrey 
or  some  such  expression,  before  du^  de  /',  or  des^^  being 
understood. 


*  So  natural  it  is  to  fall  into  what  may  be  called  a  mistake  now,  that  I 
have  heard  French  children  (and  children  are  greater  analists  than  our  best 
philosophers,  for  .they  follow  more  exactly  the  lessons  of  Nature)  use  such 
St  mode  of  expressfon  in  j'ai  mal  a  le  doigt,  for  j'ai  mal  au  doigt  (I  have  a 
pain  in  my  finger). 

t  The  Scholar  will  become  more  sensible  of  this  truthi  when  we  treat  of 
X\\t  Preposition.  ■ 


OF  LANGUAGE.  43 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  demonstrative  Anicle 
ce,  cet,  m.  cettey  f.  this  or  that :  ces^  pi.  these  or  those. 
Ce  precedes  a  consonant ;  cet  a  vowel  or  h  mute. 


I  # 


CCet 


EXAMPLES. 

Ce  jardin,  s.  m.  7his  or  that  garden. 

de,  ce  jardin.  of  or  from  this  or  that  garden. 

a  ce  jardin.  to  this  or  that  garden. 

Cet  homme.  s.  m.         this  or  that  man. 

cet  homme.  of  or  from  this  or  that  man. 

cet  homme.  to  this  or  that  man. 

cet  enfant.s.  m.  this  or  that  child. 

1  de  cet  enfant.  of  or  from  this  or  that  child. 

([  a  cet  enfant.  to  this  or  that  child. 

Cette^  this  or  that,  in  the  feminine,  is  invariably  the 
same  ;  as, 

CCetie  dame.  s.  f.  This  or  that  lady. 

<  de  cette  dame.  of  or  from  this  or  that  lady. 

^a  cette  dame.  to  this  or  that  lady. 

cette  humeur.  s.  f.  this  or  that  huinour. 

de  cette  humeur.  of  or  from  this  or  that  humour. 

a  cette  humeur.  to  this  or  that  humour. 

cette  ecole.  f.  this  or  that  school, 

de  cette  ecole.  f.  of  or  froin  this  or  that  school. 

a  cette  ecole.  to  this  or  that  school. 

Ces,  plural,  is  the  same  in  both  genders. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ces  hommes.  pi.  m.  These  or  those  men. 

de  ces  hommes.  of  or  from-Me^e  or  those  men. 

i  ces  hommes  to  these  or  those  men. 

ces  femmes.  pi.  f.  these  or  those  women. 

de  ces  femmes.  of  or  from  these  or  those  womcH. 

a  ces  femmes.  to  these  or  those  women. 

ces  ef.fans.  pi.  m.  these  or  those  children. 

de  ces  enfans.  of  or  from  these  or  those  chiUdrcn. 

i  ces  enfans.  to  these  or  those  children. 


The  following,  which  comprehends  all  the  words  of 
the  same  class,  concludes  the  demonstrative  Article 


Celuiqui.  m.  s.— He  who  "*  r  Celui  qui  etudie— ^e  v^ho  or  he 

L  h  h    th  t  -i        '^^'  studies. 

Cellequi.  f.  s. — she  who  f"  J  celle  qui  ecrit — she  xvho  or  she 

J  L       that  writes. 

Ceux  qui.  m.  pi.  'j  r  ceux  qui  etudient — they  or  those  vjho 

C^Uesqui.f.s.   \   they  or  those  who  -{  celksq  J icrivent-they  or  those -who 

J  L       write. 


44  PHILOSOPHY 

Celui-ct — this.  Celui-la.  m.  s. — Donnez-moi  celui-ci,hg3.rdezc€lui-la — give 

me  this,  and  keep  that, 
Ceux-ci — these.  Ceux-la.  m.  pi.  those. — Donnez-moi  ceux-ci,  &  gardez  ccwx- 

la — give  me  these,  and  keep  those. 
Celle-ci — this.  Celle-la.  f.  s.  that. — Prenez  celle-ci  8c  laissez-mioi  celle-la — take 

this,  and  leave  me  that. 
Celles-ci — these.  Celles-la.  f.  pi.  th.at— Prenez  celles-ci,  Sc  laissez-moi  celles- 

la — take  these,  and  leave  me  those. 
Ce  qui,  cecpie—whdit,  that  which.   Ce  qui  lui  arrive  est  ce  que  je  lui  ai  prc- 

dit — 'what  befalls  him  is  that  ivhich  I  foretold  him. 
Note.   The  adjuncts  ci  and  la  render  the  demonstrative  still  more 
forcible ;  the  former  shows  the  object  near ;  the  latter  more  remote. 

Scholar. 

Have  you  any  more  to  say  on  the  sdbject  of  Articles  ? 
Master. 

Yes.  Take  notice,  First,  That  the  Article  ie,  &c.  the, 
in  French,  renders  the  idea  more  general,  gives  it  the 
greatest  possible  latitude,  and  represents  the  whole  spe- 
cies by  a  single  individual,  as  is  done  in  English,  by  the 
suppression  of  the  indicative  article  ;  as,  man  is  mortal ; 
/'  homme  est  mortel,  that  is  to  say,  all  men: — Opinion 
(i.  e.  opinion  in  general)  is  the  Queen  of  this  world ; 
/'  opinion  est  la  Reine  de  ce  monde. 

Secondly,  The  Article  placed  before  Adjectives,  the 
infinitives  of  some  Verbs,  or  before  Adverbs,  Preposi- 
tions and  Conjunctions,  transform  them  into  Nouns  ;  in 
such  case,  though  the  Article  may  be  singular  or  plural,  ac- 
cording to  the  sense,  it  must  be  of  the  masculine  gender. 

EXAMPLES. 

The  Article  (masculine J  before  Adjectives, 
Le  vrai  &  le  beau  sont  1'  objet  des     Truth  and  beauty  are  the  objects  of 

arts.  the  arts. 

Les  vertueux  sont  estimcs.  The  virtuous  are  esteemed. 

Infinitives, 
Le  boire  8c  le  manger  sont  indispen-    Eating  and  drinking  are  indispensa- 

sables.  ble. 

Le  rire  de  cet  homme  est  niais.  7'/6e  laughter  of  this  man  is  silly. 

Adverbs, 

II  veut  savoir  le  pourquoi  &;  l^  com-     He  would  know  thtnuhy  and  the %vhat 
ment  de  tout.  of  every  thing. 

Prepositions. 
Un  avocat  ne  peut  dcfendre  le  pour       A  lawyer  cannot  defend  the  Jor  and 
8c  le  contre  dans  un  proces.  against  in  a  suit. 

Conjunctions, 

Les  si,    les  car  8c  les  mais  de  cet     The  ifs,Jbrszndbiitso£  this mvLXxren- 
homme  le  rendent  fort  ennuyeux.  der  him  intolerable. 


I 


OF  LANGUAGE.  45 

Finally.  Though  proper  names  arc  in  themselves  suffi- 
ciently definite,  and  of  course  need  no  Article,  yet  they 
will  sometimes  admit  the  Article  before  them  ;  as,  les 
Franklins,  les  Washingtons  &  les  JefFersons,  font  un  hon- 
neur  immortel  a  TAmerique  ;  The  Franklins,  Washing- 
tons  and  Jeffersons  reflect  eternal  honour  on  America. 

By  thus  placing  the  Articles  before  their  proper  names, 
we  form  a  distinct  class,  a  separate  species  of  them,  the 
better  to  convey  to  the  mind  the  exalted  opinion  we  en- 
tertain of  such  great  men.  Then,  their  names  becoming 
appellative  or  common^  are  liable  to  the  accidents  thereof. 


J^OTE  OA^  THE  ARTICLE. 

SOME  Grammarians,  among  whom  we  find  the  celebrated  Scaliger, 
Wuo  calls  the  Article  an  otiosuni  instrur,ientuvi,  have  denied  the  absolute 
necessity  of  such  a  determining  word.  However,  a  retrospective  view  of 
language,  so  far  as  we  have  advanced  in  the  history  of  its  rise  and  pro- 
gress, will  soon  convince  us  that  it  is  indispensable. 

The  Noun^  common  of  kind  or  species,  (the  origin  of  which  we  have 
accounted  for,  and  which  forms  the  basis  of  Language)  are  general  terms 
applying  to  a  number  or  mass  of  individuals  of  the  same  species.  When- 
ever, therefore,  we  would  say  any  thing  particular  concerning  one  of  those 
individuals,  were  we  merely  to  use  the  general  term  without  signifying  our 
intention  of  using  it  in  that  restrained  or  limited  point  of  view,  what  we 
would  say  of  one  individual  would  apply  to  the  wMe  species,  and  conse- 
quently leave  the  mind  of  the  hearer  in  a  state  of  absolute  uncertainty^ 
which  one  among  them  it  is  intended  to  designate  by  the  tenn. 

In  vain  would  the  assistance  of  Adjectives  be  called  in  to  fix  its  mean- 
ing, by  qualifying  or  distinguishing  it  by  enumeration  of  various  proper- 
ties ;  the  mind  of  the  hearer  would  still  remain  unsatisfied,  as  Adjectives 
are  also  general  terms  that  were  devised  for  characterizing  individuals  pos- 
sessing the  same  general  properties.  To  emerge  froui  a  state  of  obscurity 
so  irksome,  the  mind,  tired  of  using  bodily  signs  to  limit  the  latitude  of 
the  general  term,  would  apply  to  it,  at  last,  a  short  sound,  which  might 
at  once  inform  the  hearer,  that  the  general  term,  though  used,  is  now 
looked  upon  by  the  mind  as  fit  only  for  the  individual,  which  is  the  subject 
of  discourse.  Thus,  the  necessity  of  speaking  clearly  in  order  to  be  un- 
derstood, necessarily  produced  the  invention  of  the  Article. 

What  therefore  could  have  induced  men  of  learning  to  maintain  an  opi- 
nion so  different  from  that  of  him  who  studied  mankind  in  the  first  un- 
foldings  of  reason,  and  the  gradual  formation  of  articulate  signs  ?  Preju- 
dice, and  the  idea  that  Articles  are  so  very  abstract  (which  is  well  founded' 
row),  and  that  they  could  not  have  been  introduced  as  a  matter  of  necessi- 
ty, bqt  as  one  of  philosophical  luxury.  This  prepossession  arose  from  a 
conviction  that  there  was  but  one  Article  which  the  Latins,  wishing  to  act 
more  wisely  than  the  Greeks  (who  tliought  they  could  not  dispense  with 
it),  had  totally  banished  ixoixx  \.\\t\r\?iX\^wx^Q.,  on  which  those  enthusias- 
tic Grammarians  wanted  to  new-model,  even  by  force,  (if  such  an  ex- 
pression may  be  allowed)  every  other  language.     This  pretended  exile  an- 


46  PHILOSOPHY 

swered  to  the  indicative  Article  the  of  the  English ;  /e,  Sec.  of  the  French ; 
and  6  of  the  Greeks. 

The  truth  is,  however,  that  the  Latins  had  not  only  that  very  Article 
indicative,  as  ille,  ilia,  illiid,  answered  pretty  accurately  to  it ;  but  also  all 
our  other  Articles,  besides  one  is  peculiar  to  their  language,  and  designed 
chiefly  for  persons.  HiCj  ille  and  is,  observes  a  celebrated  French  author, 
may  be  united  in  the  same  phrase ;  then  the  two  first  designate  objects  in 
sight :  hie  is  for  those  that  are  near,  ille  for  those  that  are  at  a  distance ;  and 
is  for  those  that  are  out  of  sight,  or  the  absentees :  a  delicate  gradation, 
which  cannot  be  observed  in  our  language,  which  is  deficient  in  a  term  to 
express  the  latter  idea ;  a  proof  that  the  Latins,  so  far  from  being  depriv- 
ed of  Articles,  excelled  us  in  that  particular.  It  is  true,  that  ille.  Sec.  was 
often  suppressed,  but  it  was  only  when  it  could  be  dispensed  with,  or  when 
the  clearness  of  a  sentence  would  suifer  so  very  little  from  its  suppres- 
sion, that  it  might,  in  such  a  case,  be  safely  sacrificed  to  the  vivacity  of 
Diction. 

See,  on  the  subject  of  Latin  Articles,  Bonamv's  Memoire,  tome 
XX.  de  I'Academie  des  Inscriptions  &  Belles  Lettres. — Maffei,  Genie 
de  la  Litterature  Italienne,  tome  i. 

There  now  remains  but  one  objection  against  the  Article,  that  it  is  too 
metaphysical  to  be  absolutely  indispensable.  It  is  very  abstract  for  us,  in- 
deed, who  have  lost  sight  of  its  origin,  but  it  is  not  the  less  physical  for  it 
on  that  account ,  for  the  intellectual  world  is  always  founded  on  the  phy- 
sical world,  as  its  basis. 

The  Article  indicative  o  of  the  Greeks,  was,  in  the  origin  of  their  lan- 
guage, a  Noun  of  place,  and  meant  there. 

The  English  Article  the  is  probably  derived  from  the  Noun  of  place 
there :  It  is  not  inerely  because  t,  h,  e  is  to  be  met  with  in  there,  I  say  so : 
it  is  because  there  is  an  analogy  of  iTieaning  between  the  two  expressions. 
7he  nnan,  means  the  man  already  spoken  of,  at  a  distance  from  us,  not 
so  close  to  us  as  the  individual  of  wliom  I  say,  7 his  mafi ;  the  word  there 
was  then  probably  applied  first  to  the  word,  till  it  becomes  the,  by  that 
love  that  mankind  feel  for  abbreviation  or  conciseness  of  expression,  as 
well  as  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Noun  of  place  there. 

So  natural  is  it  to  use  Nouns  of  place  with  Nouns  common  to  precede 
them,  that  the  lower  class  of  people,  who  must  have  kept  iip,  rather  than 
the  polished  part  of  the  nation,  the  ancient  forms  of  language,  often  speaks 
more  clearly,  by  saying,  this  here  man  ;  that  there  man. 

The  French  say,  II  vient  de  la;  Je  vais  la,-  Get  homme  la,  &c.  He 
comes  from  there ;  I  am  going  there ;  That  man.  In  the  two  first  sentences, 
la  is  an  Adverb  of  place,  without  any  determination  to  the  Pronouns  // 
and  ye,  which  would  be  quite  superfluous ;  in  the  last,  it  is  certainly  the 
same  Adverb  with  a  particular  determination  to  the  Noun,  the  more 
clearly  to  define  it. 

The  French  demonstrative  Article  ce,  this  or  that,  comes  from  the  an- 
cient and  primitive  word  qa,  cei,  ci,  denoting  agitation,  motion,  and  cer- 
tainly a  word  that  represented  a  visible  action,  was  fit  to  represent  in  a  fi- 
gurative sense  the  oyiotion  of  the  mind  turning  particularly  towards  an  object  to 
embrace  it  solely  and  exclusively  of  others  of  the  same  or  different  kinds. 

Etymology  and  Reason  appear,  therefore,  to  combine  in  showing  the 
physical  origin  of  those  very  metaphysical  terms,  and  it  is  most  probable, 
indeed,  that  they  were  chosen  among  the  Nouns  of  place,  which  must 
have  been  very  early  invented,  as  they  were  a  translation  of  the  gestures 
of  men  pointing  at  particular  objects. 

I  will  conclude  what  I  have  to  say  of  the  Article,  by  observing,  that 
there  is  a  striking  difference  between  the  English  and  French  languages, 


OF  LANGUAGE.  47 

in  the  use  of  the  Article;  in  the  former,  the  Article  is  never  used  before 
the  Noun  common,  singular  or  plural,  when  it  is  uttered  to  announce  a 
property  belonging  to  the  whole  collection  of  individuals,  whose  species  is 
designated  by  the  term :  so,  they  will  say,  man  thinks  ;  man  is  mortal ; — 
while  the  French  would  say,  I'homme  pense  ;  1'  homme  est  mortel. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  latter  do  not  obey,  in  this  particular,  the  dictates  of 
Logic,  as,  in  the  above  modes  of  expression,  vian  is  used  for  such  a  mode 
of  expression,  as,  every  inan  ivhatever,  which  extends  to  all  mankind: 
The  Article  being  a  word  of  limitation,  it  should  not  be  used,  in  such  sen- 
tences, before  the  general  term. 

The  people  who  invent  Proverbs,  often  bespeaking  their  native  good 
sense,  seldom  use,  in  French,  the  Article  in  this  instance  we  are  mention- 
ing :  thus,  they  say,  without  the  Article, 

Pauvreti  ?z'  est  pas  vice.     Poverty  is  not  a  vice. 

Pierre  qui  roule  n^  amasse  point  de  mousse. — Rolling  stone  will  gather  no 
moss. 

Coiitentetnent  passe  richesses.       Self-content  is  preferable  to  riches. 

Plus  fait  douceur  que  violence.     Gentleness  will  do  more  than  violence. 

La  Fontaine,  that  Poet  of  Nature,  offers,  in  his  Fables,  a  number  of 
these  examples  where  the  Article  is  properly  suppressed. 

In  the  Syntax  of  this  work,  we  shall  show  the  contrast  between  the 
English  and  French  Articles,  with  regard  to  the  manner  of  using  the 
latter. 


CONVERSATION  V. 
OF  OTHER  ARTICLES. 


Scholar. 

WHICH  are  the  other  Articles  ? 
Master. 

The  following,  viz. 

1st.  The  Possessive,  as,  wow,  &c.  my,  &c. 

2d.  The  Possessive  Relative,  as,  ie  7men,  &c.  mine,  Sec. 

3d.  The  Demonstrative  conjunctive,  as,  ^w/,  &c.  who, 
&c. 

4th.  The  Numerical  Determinative,  as,  un,  &c.  one, 
&c.  certain,  certain ;  tel,  such. 

5th.  The  Numerical  Indeterminative,  as,  plusieurs, 
several,  many ;  quelques,  some  ;  certains,  certain ;  tels, 
such. 

6th.  The  Negative,  as,  mil,  aiicun^  none,  not  any,  &c. 


48  PHILOSOPHY 

7th,  The  Collective^  as,  tout^  m.  s.  toute^  f.  s.  tousf 
m.  p.  toutes,  f.  p«  all,  &c. 

8th.  The  Distributive,  as,  chaque,  each,  every. 
Scholar. 

I  have  noticed,  that  these  very  words,  which  you  now 
treat  of,  as  Articles,  are  set  down  in  other  French  Gram- 
mars as  Pronouns.     Why  do  you  call  them  Articles  ? 
Master. 

Because,  the  province  of  the  Article  is,  to  define  and 
set  boundaries  to  the  Noun  ;  therefore,  every  word  pos- 
sessing that  property  must  be  classed  with  the  Articles, 
notwithstanding  the  respectability  of  grammatical  autho- 
rities, if  they  be  erroneous. 

I  have  adopted  the  classification  of  the  two  eminent 
French  Grammarians,  Beauzee  and  Sicard  (with  some  lit- 
tle deviation  from  their  system)  as  it  appeared  to  me  to 
be  founded  on  sound  principles. 

We  will  now  proceed  minutely  to  review  those  Arti- 
cles in  the  same  order  as  above. 

OF  THE  POSSESSIVE  ARTICLES. 

Masculine.     Fe7n.     Of  both  Genders. 


C      mon, 

1st  Person  ^  de  mon, 

C.a    mon. 

s.  ma, 
ma, 
ma. 

,  s.  mes,  pi." 
mes,       ' 
mes,      [ 

^                   mine. 
C  of  or  from  mine. 
^            to    mine. 

r      ton, 

2d  Person  <  de  ton, 

(^a    ton, 

ta, 
ta, 
ta. 

tes, 
tes, 
tes, 

J                   thine. 
C  of  or  from  thine. 
3             to    thine. 

C      son, 

3d  Person  <  de  son, 

C.  a    son. 

sa, 
sa, 
sa. 

ses, 
ses, 
ses. 

"^                   his,  her  or  its. 
C  of  or  from  his,  her      its. 
^                   his,  her       its. 

Of  both  Genders. 

C      notre, 

1st  Person  <  de  notre, 

(.a    notre. 

s. 

nos,  pi. 

nos, 

nos. 

)                    our. 
C  of  or  from  our. 
^             to     our. 

C      votre, 

2d  Person  <  de  votre, 

^a    votre. 

vos, 
vos, 
vos. 

■^                   your. 
C  of  or  from  your. 
3            to     your. 

r      leur, 

3d  Person  <  de  leur, 

^a    leur, 

leurs, 
leurs, 
leurs, 

-^                   their. 
C  of  or  from  their. 
3              to  their. 

OF  LANGUAGE. 


49 


OF  THE  POSSESSIVE  ARTICLES, 

RELATIVE  TO  AJ^  OBJECT  BEFORE  MEJVTIOJVED, 


Masculine. 
"  le  mien,  s.  les  miens,  pi. 
du  mien,       des  miens, 
au  mien,        aux  miens, 


1st  Person  < 


2d  Person 


3d  Person  <^ 


Feminine. 

la   mienne,     les  miennes, 

delamienne,  des  miennes, 

^a  la  mienne,  aux  miennes,  J 

Masculine. 
He  tien,  les   tiens, 

du  tien,  des  tiens, 

au  tien,  aux  tiens. 

Feminine. 

la  tiennes,      les    tiennes, 

de  la  tienne,     des  tiennes, 

^a  la  tienne,      aux  tiennes,^ 

Masculine. 
'le  sien,  les    siens, 

du  sien,  des  siens, 

au  sien,  aux  siens, 


mine. 

S'of  or  from  mine. 

to  mine* 


thine, 
•of  or  from  thine, 
to  thine. 


Feminine. 
la  sienne,         les    siennes 
de  la  sienne,      des  siennes 
a  la  sienne,        aux  siennes 


:j 


his,  hers,  or  its. 
^of  or  from  his,  hers,  it^ 
!  to  his,  hers,     its. 


Masculine.  Feminine.     Of  both  Genders. 

rie  notre,  s.  la  notre,  s.  les  notres,  pl,"^                    ours, 

1st  Per.  ^  du  notre,  de  la  n  Jtre,   des  notres,       ^  of  or  from  ours, 

^^au  notre,  a  la  n6tre,     aux  notres,      j                    ours. 


rie  v'jtre, 

2d  Per,  <  du  votre, 

C  au  v6cre. 


la  votre,  les  votres, 
de  la  votre,  des  v5tres, 
a  la  v6tre,     aux  votres, 


TS. 

ioi 


Sd  Per. 


le  leur, 

duleur, 
au  leur, 


la  leur, 
de  la  leur, 
a  la  leur. 


les  leurs, 
des  leurs, 
aux  leurs, 


yours. 

or  fromi  yours. 

yours. 


theirs. 

•  of  or  from  theirs. 

theirs. 


Before  we  proceed  to  the  Demonstrative  Conjunctive, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  premise  that  though  mon^  ton^  son 
are  masculine,  they  are  used  instead  of  ma,  ta,  sa  before 
feminine  Nouns,  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h  mute:  thus, 
the  concordance  of  genders  is,  in  this  case,  sacrificed  to 
the  harmony  of  sound,  as  mon  epee  (instead  of  ma  epee) 
VOL.   n.  H 


50  PHILOSOPHY 

est  plus  courte  que  la  sienne,  my  sword  Is  shorter  than 
his  ;  ton  amitie  (for  ta  amitie)  m'est  chere,  thy  friend- 
ship is  dear  to  me  ;  son  histoire  (for  sa  histoire)  est  trop 
longue,  his,  or  her,  history  is  too  long. 

But  if  an  Adjective  not  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h 
mute,  should  precede  the  feminine  Noun,  the  rule  of 
concordance  relative  to  Article  and  Noun  is  strictly  ob- 
served, and  mon^  ton,  son,  in  the  above  instance,  natu- 
rally become  ma,  ta,  sa;  as,  ma  belle  epee,  my  handsome 
sword ;  ta  sincere  amitie,  thy  sincere  friendship  j  sa  sa- 
vante  histoire,  hh  learned  history. 

I  will  here  observe  that,  though  the  possessive  Articles 
of  the  third  person  assume  in  English  the  gender  of  the 
possessor,  they  assume  in  French  the  gender  of  the 
thing  possessed.  Thus,  when  speaking  of  a  lady,  you 
say,  her  coach  ;  we  say  so?i  carosse,  because  the  word 
carosse  happens  to  be  masculine. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  CONJUNCTIVE  ARTICLES. 

Of  both ->        Qiii,  who,  that  or  which, 

genders    [  de  qui,  dont,  of  or  fromwhoin,  or  whose, 
and        [     a  qui,  to  whom,       whose, 

numbersj        que,  whom,       that,  what,  how !  why  ? 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

Lequel,  s.  lesquels,  pi.  laquelle,       lesquelles,  "^  which. 

"  ^  "     "  " 


duquel,      desquels,      de  laquelle,  desquelles,  V  of  or  from  which. 

auquel,      auxquels,     a  laquelle,    auxquelles,  j  to  which. 

■  Quel,      quels,      quelle,       quelles,     T  what  or  which. 

de  quel,  de  quels,  de  quelle,  de  quelles,  \-  of  or  from  what    which. 

a  quel,    ^  quels,   a  quelle,    a  quelles,  j  to  what     which. 

N.  B.  ^el,  &c.  is  always  joined  to  a  Noun. 

.  Quoi  which  or  what. 

de  quoi,  of  or  from  which      what. 

■  i  a  quoi,  to  which      what. 

N.  B.  ^o/ is  never  applied  to /?erfonj. 

Scholar. 
Can  you  convince  me  that  my  and  who  are  Articles  and 
not  Pro7ioiins* 

Master. 
I  can. — Suppose  the  word  my  not  yet  invented,  and 
that  I  wanted  to  express  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  terms 


OF  LANGUAGE.  51 

my  friends,  I  must  have  recourse  to  the  following  cir- 
cumlocution, and  say,  the  friend  of  me;  my,  it  appears, 
supplies  the  place  of  three  words,  viz.  the  Article  the^ 
Preposition  of  and  Pronoun  me.  But  which  of  the  three 
terms  is  predominant  ?  The  word  the  certainly,  as  it  is 
used  particularly  to  define  or  circumscribe  the  word 
friend,  which  without  it  is  only  a  general  term  for  every 
friend  ;  the  Preposition  and  the  Pronoun  concur  with 
the  Article  in  determining,  more  pointedly,  the  sense  of 
the  expression  friend,  I  must,  therefore,  conclude  that 
my,  an  elliptical  term,  the  equivalent  of  the  three  words 
above  mentioned,  is  a  determining  word  and  of  course 
is  entitled  to  the  name  of  Article  rather  than  any  other. 

With  respect  to  the  Demonstrative  Conjunctive  who, 
qui,  if  we  suppose  it  not  yet  introduced  into  our  lan- 
guage ;  to  express  a  sentence  corresponding  with  the 
following,  viz.  The  master  who  teaches  the  mathematics 
in  this  college  is  very  skilful.  I  would  say,  "  A  master 
teaches  the  mathematics  in  this  college  and  that  master  is 
very  skilfuW^ — Instead  of  -who,  I  am  obliged  to  use  the 
three  words  "  and  that  master. ^^ 

The  first  is  a  Conjunction,  which  unites  the  two  Pro- 
positions ;  the  second  is  a  demonstrative  Article  ;  and  the 
third  is  a  Noun  :  Who  is  therefore  a  conjunctive  Article  and 
Pronoun  at  the  same  time  ;  but  when  us^d  as  a  substitute 
for  the  three  expressions  above  mentioned,  it  is  in  order 
to  define  and  circumscribe,  in  a  conspicuous  manner,  the 
general  term  master :  Who  is  therefore  an  Article,  and 
may  be  called  Demonstrative  Conjunctive  to  distinguish  it 
more  particularly  from  other  Articles. 
Scholar. 

What  difference  is  there  between  qui  and  lequel? 
Master. 

First,  ^i  is  of  both  genders  and  numbers,  and  lequel 
agrees  in  gender  and  number  with  its  Noun. 

Second,  ^i,  not  acted  upon  by  a  Preposition,  is 
relative  to  persons  and  things  j  as  in  the  following  ex- 
amples ; 

Un  homme  qui  aime  la  vertu,  A  man  v:bo  loves  virtue. 

Une  histoirc  qui  plait.  A  history  tbat  pleases. 

On  such  occasions  it  would  be  highly  improper  to  use 
lequel,  &:c. 


52  PHILOSOPHY 

But  qui,  governed  by  a  Preposition,  applies  to  persons 
only  ;  the  following  sentences  therefore  would  be  in- 
correct : 

Voila  la  maison  de  qui  j'ai  fait  I'ac-     There  is  the  house   vihich  I  have 

quisition.  made  a  purchase  of. 

L 'argent  sur  qui  je  compte.  The  money  on  tuhicb  1  depend- 

In  the  first  instance,  we  should  use  de  laquelle  or  donty 
instead  of  de  qui  ;  and  in  the  next,  sur  lequel,  instead  of 
sur  qui. 

In  speaking  of  persons,  we  often  indifferently  make 
use  of  de  qui,  duquel,  or  de  laquelle,  &c.  The  ear,  how- 
ever, is  the  chief  guide  in  the  choice  of  either  ;  but  dont 
should  not  be  used  in  such  cases. 

Polite  custom  and  the  attentive  perusal  of  approved 
authors,  will  form  your  judgment,  and  direct  you  best, 
when  to  adopt  the  one  or  reject  the  other. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  other  Articles. 
Scholar. 

Which  are  the  Determinative  Numerical  Articles  ? 
Master. 

Un,  une,  one  ;  detix,  two,  &c.  (of  both  genders)  ;  and 
quelque,  one  (among  many)  or  some  ;  as,  quelque  traitre 
vous  denoncera;  some  traitor  will  inform  against  you.  Cer- 
tain, certain  ;  J'ai  oni  dire  a  certain,  ou  a  un  certain,  bel 
esprit  que  ;  I  heard  a  certain  virtuoso  say  that.  As  you 
have  already  met  with  these  Articles  in  the />rac^/ca/ part 
of  this  work,  there  is  no  occasion  that  I  should  present 
you  a  list  of  them ;  it  is  sufficient  that  you  should  now 
be  informed  to  what  part  of  speech  they  belong. 
Scholar. 

Why  do  you  call  them  determinative  P 
Master. 

Because,  when  they  are  expressed  before  Nouns,  we 
know  how  often  the  object  represented  by  the  Noun,  is 
repeated  :  I  call  them  determinative  in  contradistinction 
to  other  Articles,  which  convey  an  idea  of  number  inde- 
terminative  ;  such  as,  plusieurs  (in  both  genders),  many, 
several ;  quelques,  some. 

EXAMPLES. 

J,%i  rencontre  jft/w^ewr-yj olies  fem-  I  have  met  many,   or  several,  pretty 

mes.  ,  women. 

Je  leur  pr  sentai  quelques  p^ches  I  presented  them*owe  peaches  M'hich 

que  j'  avais  cueillies.  I  had  gathered. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  53 


From  this  mode  of  expression,  you  cannot  determine 
how  many  pretty  women  I  met  with,  nor  hozu  many 
peaches  I  presented  them. 

Scholar. 

I  find  that  in  all  the  French  Grammars  I  have  perus- 
ed, the  Numerical  Articles  are  called  Adjectives^  as  well 
as  several  others  of  your  Articles :  would  it  not  be  as 
well  that  they  should  still  remain  on  the  list  of  Adjec- 
tives, as  that  you  should  class  them  with  Articles  in  op- 
position to  so  many  grammatical  writers  ? 
Master. 

I  think  not.  For  you  must  acknowledge,  that  it" is 
highly  inconsistent  with  the  character  or  pursuits  of  a 
lover  of  science,  if,  instead  of  throwing  some  light  on 
abstruse  subjects,  he  helps  to  consolidate  errors,  which, 
notwithstanding  the  boast  of  their  antiquity,  are  so  many 
impediments  in  the  road  to  truth  and  useful  discovery, 
the  great  objects  of  the  scientific  man.  But  to  return  to 
the  subject ;  I  will  endeavour  to  make  you  sensible  that 
those  terms,  commonly  called  Adjectives,  cannot  be  pro- 
perly termed  so,  without  a  perversion  of  words.  Let  us 
recollect  what  the  Adjective  is.  It  is  a  word,  as  already 
described,  which  represents  a  quality,  action,  form,  co- 
lour, passion,  habit,  &c.  and,  consequently,  brings  to  the 
mind  the  image  of  something  physical  or  material. 

The  Article^  on  the  other  hand,  pictures  nothing  to  the 
mind,  but  leaves  it  in  the  vacuum  of  abstraction.  For 
instance,  what  means  the  word  three^  which,  of  itself 
signifies  neither  three  dollars,  nor  three  men,  nor  three 
horses,  but  three  in  general  ? 

As  to  Adjectives y  they  have  degrees  of  signification  and 
comparison,  which  Articles  will  not  admit  of.  We  can- 
not say  of  any  object,  that  it  is  more  or  less  the^  a,  this^ 
my,  who,  three,  than  another. 

Articles  are,  therefore,  by  no  means,  eiltitled  to  be  call- 
ed Adjectives  when  they  possess  none  of  their  properties. 
The  name  of  Metaphysical  Adjectives,  given  to  them  by 
two  celebrated  French  Grammarians,  does  not,  in  my 
opinion,  much  contribute  to  illustrate  the  subject. 
Scholar. 

Which  are  the  remaining  Articles  ? 
Master. 

First :  The  Negative,  as  md,  m.  nulle,  f.  aucun,  m.  au- 
cimey  f.  signifying,  in  English,  nobody,  none,  not  any. 


54  PHILOSOPHY 

They  are  called  Negatives^  as  requiring  to  be  preceded 
or  followed  by  the  negative  ne,  not,  and  implying  a  deni. 
al  of  the  circumstance  expressed. — Examples. 

Aucun  on  nul  ne  le  sait.  No  body,  or  none,  knows  it. 

De  toutes   les   Grammaires  je  ne    Of  all  the  Grammars  I  am  a  slave 

nri'  attache  a  aucune.  to  none. 

Je  n'  en  ai  vu  aucune.  I  did  not  see  any  of  them. 

Second :  The  Collective  Article,  tout^  m.  toute,  f.  sin- 
gular, every. — Example. 

Thtite  peine  merite  salaire.  Every  trouble  deserves  a  pay. 

Toutes  les  homme  sont  mortals ,  All  men  are  mortal. 

Toutes  les  femmes  ctaient  superbe-  All  the  women  were  magnificently 

ment.  parees,  dressed. 

Remark,  that  when  tout  or  toute.,  in  the  singular,  is 
followed  by  the  Article  le  or  /<7,  it  is  then  no  longer  an 
Article,  but  an  Adjective,  and  means  the  totality,  not  of 
the  individuals  of  the  species,  but  of  the  integrant  parts 
which  constitute  the  individual. — Examples. 

Tout  le  boeuf  fut  mange.  The  whole  ox  was  eaten. 

Toute  la  nation  demanda  la  guerre .        7 he  nuhole  nation  cried  out  for  war. 

When  it  means  every  things  it  is  invariably  tout. — Ex- 
ample. 

Dieu  a  tout  crce.  Gud  has  created  all  or  every  thing. 

Third  :  The  Distributive  Article  chaque.^  each,  or  eve- 
ry, is  of  both  genders,  but  without  the  plural  number. 
— Example. 

Chaquc  pays  a  ses  contumes.  Every  country  has  its  customs. 

Remettez  chaqiie  chose  a  sa  place.       Restore  every  thing  to  its  place. 


CONVERSATION  VI. 

OF  PROJVOUJVS. 

Scholar. 
WHAT  is  a  Pronoun  ? 

Master. 
A  word  which  represents  persons  performing  certain 
parts  in  the  mutual  communication  of  their  sentiments. 
Scholar. 
Assisted  by  the  Parts  of  Speech  you  have  just  treated 
of,  could  we  not  dispense  with  Pronouns  I 


' ;  OF  LANGUAGE.  55 

Master. 

By  no  means  :  For,  though  aided  by  those  Parts  of 
Speech  and  the  Verb,  without  the  help  of  Pronouns  we 
could  only  converse  on  subjects  which  could  be  neither 
Tou  nor  /,  and  which  must  be  expressed  by  their  appro- 
priate names,  in  order  to  be  accurately  distinguished  : 
But  were  we  doomed  by  Nature  never  to  enjoy  the  hap- 
piness of  acquainting  one  another  with  our  mutual  senti- 
ments !  Were  I  never  to  address  you  in  the  language  of 
the  heart,  and  you  never  to  answer  me  ;  may  I  not  wish 
to  speak  to  you  of  yourelf,  and  you,  in  return  to  me,  of 
myself !  Too  deeply  should  we  feel  the  inability  to  unfold 
our  sentiments  to  one  another,  and  particularly  to  those  we 
love — the  insufficiency  too  imperious  to  yield  to  the  ex- 
istence of  a  language  without  pronouns,  so  indispensably 
necessary  to  enable  us  to  impart  the  heart-felt  joy,  the 
tender  affection,  or  the  impulse  of  friendship  !  A  fond 
mother,  for  want  of  those  endearing  and  expressive  terms, 
in  addressing  her  beloved  son,  must  resort  to  language  in- 
adequate to  her  feelings  !  Thus,  Son^  the  love  that  a  mo- 
ther  feels  for  a  son,  induces  a  mother  to  tell  a  son,  that  a 
son  should  avoid  all  that  can  be  hurtful  to  a  son,  or  that 
can  render  a  son  odious  to  the  fellow-creatures  of  a  son. 

This  style  would  indirectly  apply  to  her  son,  and  con- 
ceal her  earnest  desire  of  pouring  out  the  full  expression 
of  her  cares  and  solicitude  for  him.  Nature,  therefore, 
inspired  her  to  use  such  terms  as  /,  me,  thou,  thee,  which 
so  happily  represent  the  persons  present,  and  she  must 
have  addressed  him  in  the  following  pathetic  and  ani- 
mated sentence : 

Ml/  son !  my  love  compels  7ne  to  admonish  thee  to 
avoid  every  thing  hurtful,  and  all  that  can  render  thee 
odious  to  thy  fellow-creatures. 

Observe  then,  that  it  is  not  merely  to  avoid  the  intolera- 
ble repetition  of  the  same  words  that  Pronouns  have  been 
devised  ;  precision  alone  would  require  the  invention  of 
them.  Conversation  without  Pronouns  would  frequently 
be  productive  of  mistakes  and  confusion  :  Our  language 
would  be  imperfect  and  inaccurate,  and  the  manner  of 
imparting  our  sentiments  tedious  and  uninteresting  ;  we 
could  only  converse  with  persons  whose  names  were  fa- 
miliar to  us,  and  not  with  persons  the  names  of  whom 
we  know  not. 


56  PHILOSOPHY 

Without  insisting  any  longer  on  the  necessity  of  this 
sentimental  Part  of  Speech,  which,  according  to  superfi- 
cial Grammarians,  could  be  dispensed  with,  I  will  pro- 
ceed to  the  various  parts,  which  we  may  reciprocally  per- 
form in  the  oral  conveyance  of  our  sentiments. 
Scholar. 

How  many  parts  can  we  perform  ? 
Master. 

Three ;  which  vary  according  to  relative  circum- 
stances. 

Scholar. 

Please  to  give  me  a  fuller  explanation. 
Master. 

Cheerfully.  For  instance,  suppose  you  wanted  to  in- 
form me  that  you  had  done  something ;  in  speaking  of 
yourself^  you  would  say,  /  have  done,  &c.  /  represents 
you,  by  your  own  declaration,  as  the  author  of  the  action 
expressed  in  the  sentence;  and /represents  all  others, 
as  well  as  you,  who  declare  individually,  what  they  have 
done.  This  expression  is,  therefore,  a  general  term  to 
signify  that  a  person  is  his  own  historian  of  the  action  he 
has  performed.  The  part  that  each  performs,  being  the 
most  interesting,  the  representative  word  /  is  called  a 
Pronoun  of  the  first  person,  to  denote  its  precedence. 

If  several,  enduring  together  the  same  hardships,  or 
doing  the  same  deeds,  were  to  express  their  sufferings  or 
actions,  through  the  organ  of  one  of  their  associates,  7^ 
y*?,  in  French,  would  become  we^  nous,  which  is  termed 
a  Pronoun  of  the  first  person  plural.  Thus,  it  appears 
that  Je  and  nous  represented  one  or  more  actors  in  the 
various  scenes  they  describe,  by  the  relation  of  what  they 
have  themselves  done,  endured,  achieved,  &c. 

Having  attentively  listened  to  the  recital  of  your  ac- 
tions, &c.  suppose  I  noAv  address  you  in  these  words  : 
Tou  have  done^  ^c.  In  this  phrase,  I  call  you  the  agent ; 
but  in  the  former,  you  declare  yourself  as  such,  by  hav- 
ing said,  I  have  done,  Qfc.  In  my  address,  you  thus  play 
a  different  part  from  that  you  have  performed  in  your 
own,  and  to  describe  this  difference,  I  make  use  of  the 
word  Tou^  vous,  which,  as  well  as  any  other  Pronoun,  is 
a  general  term  to  express  the  relation  of  persons  under 
similar  circumstances.  I  should  here,  however,  in  strict 
propriety,  use  thou^  tu,  which  is  singular,  instead  of  you, 
vous,  which  is  plural,  as  you  are  an  individual  only  ;  but 


OF  LANGUAGE.  ^r 

politeness,  sanctioned  by  custom,  requires  (unless  I  were 
intimate  with  you)  that  I  should  address  you  in  the  plu* 
ral  number.  It  is  then  evident,  that  you^  vous,  is  a  Pro- 
noun of  the  iSECOND  ^QYsoYi  plural^  from  the  propriety  of 
language  ;  and  singular^  by  adoption* 

Having  conversed  with  me,  some  time,  you  retire,  yet 
unwilling  to  drop  the  subject ;  I  continue  the  conversa- 
tion, and  say  to  a  person  present,  he  (alluding  to  you) 
has  done,  &c.  Your  part  in  this  phrase  of  mine  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  I  assigned  you  in  my  former,  as  I  no 
longer  declare  to  yourself  what  you  have  done^  but  to  a 
THIRD  person  :  in  this  case,  I  must  have  recourse  to  ano- 
ther expression,  which  is,  he^  il,  denominated  a  Pronoun 
of  the  third  person  singular^  masculine.  Speaking  of 
a  female,  on  a  similar  occasion,  I  would  use  the  word 
she^  elle  ;  and  were  I  to  describe  many  persons  assem- 
bled together,  I  would  use  the  Pronoun  plural^  they^  of 
both  genders,  ils,  mas.  pi.  elles^  fem.  pi.  were  I  speak- 
ing of  things,  I  would  use  the  same  Pronouns  in  French, 
having  a  strict  regard  to  the  gender  of  their  Nouns. 

Hence  you  may  easily  conceive,  how  the  same  indivi- 
dual performs  three  different  parts.  1st.  When  he  de- 
clares hitnfielf  to  be  the  agent.  2d.  When  he  is  described 
as  such,  by  a  person  addressing  him;  and  finally,  when 
he  is  spoken  of  to  another  as  the  subject  of  conversation. 

Let  us  now  apply  those  French  Pronouns  (which  we 
shall  call  active)  to  Verbs,  as  the  former  are  as  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  latter,  as  the  Article  with  the 
Noun. 


ACTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

(:jeory\  ry^parle.     "^         Tspeak. 

singular.  <  before  a  vowe/^  ^'ecris.      S.  I  <  write. 
Q_    or  A  mute.     (J,^'' he  rite,.  3         C.  i"''^^^^^* 


C  C         rmangeons."^         Ceat. 

plural.     ^nouSfVfC.  <  nous. <h\\vons.  V  ^ue  < drink* 

>.  C.  C.  C.Jo"vons,  3         Cplay- 

P  C  C         Tviens.  "^         Ccomest, 

?;    j    singular.  <<M,  thou.  <    tu.   <  chantes.  C  f>6au  <  singest. 

S  J  (^  (^  (jcis.  J         ^.l^ughest. 

Ph    j  singular    C  C  Tmarchez.  "^         Twalk.     , 

^    I       and        <vouSf  you.  <  vous.  <co\xrQZ.  Kyou  <  run. 

L  plural.     C.  L         0-ovcihQZ.  3         C^^' 


VOL.  II. 


58  PHILOSOPHY 


Active  Pronouns^  continued. 


o 

to      . 


f       C      1       C  ^^^'        1     ^     ?^*y^* 

singular  J  •/     J    he,  I  .,      J  demandera,  f 'i6c  <  will  J» demand 

masc.      ]  "'    1    it,    f "'       J  appellera.      (        C       J  call. 

L  L         J  Lestcasse.     J    /f  is  broken,  (allud- 

ing to  a  glass). 
/-        r        "^         ^dansera,      ")        7        ?  dance, 

singular    )  ,,   )  she,  /    „   \  plaira,  (  she  C  will  C  please, 

feminine,  J         |    ^^'    f        I  disparaltra,  f       J        J  disappear. 

L        V,        J         Cestcassee,  J  /« is  broken,  (alludingto 


a  bottle). 


Ctis      r       "^  ils  arriveront  avec"^  Twill  arrive  with 

pi.  masc.    !  I  j       ^'''  "^ai^ee,  •  j      the  tide. 

*d  elles-l  they  )>  ythey  <^ 

pi.  fern.     {  }  j  elks  ne  sont   pas  [  j  have    not  yet 


Scholar. 
I  find  that  the  Pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  per- 
sons, singular  and  plural,  are  equally  used  in  both  gen- 
ders ;  why,  therefore,  should  the  Pronouns  of  the  third 
person,  in  both  numbers,  admit  of  two  genders  ? 
Master. 
Because  the  person  of  whom  we  speak,  being  absent, 
and  not  coming  under  the  notice  of  our  senses,  we  are 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  making  the  distinction  of 
gender :  the  first  and  second  persons  being  always  pre- 
sent, there  is  no  occasion  to  distinguish  the  sex  to  which 
they  belong. 

Scholar. 
Why  do  you  call  those  Pronouns  active  f 

Master. 
Because  they  represent  individuals  as  subjects  of  the 
action  expressed  by  the  Verb  in  a  sentence  ;  and  are, 
therefore,  distinct  from  other  Pronouns,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  receiving  the  action  of  the  Verb,  may  be  called 
passive^ 

Scholar. 
Which  are  the  passive  Pronouns  t 

Master. 
The  following,  viz* 

l5t  Person  H;^S"^^"»   '^^  ^'        "^^^  *^  ™*' 
(^  Plural,  nouSyC.       us,  to  us. 

*  2d  Person  J^^^^Sular,    te,     c.        thee,  to  thee. 

^ Sing.  PI.   vousyC.        you,  to  you. 


3d  Person  < 


him,  or  St. 
Singular,  -^  /a,    f.        her,  or  it, 

to  him,  to  her,  or  to  it. 

Plural,      V;*»    ^-       ^^^"P-  ^ 

>      ^  /_,>  ^        to  them. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  19 

Cle,    m. 
Ala,    f. 
C/w,  c. 

C  ks,    c. 

\leur,  c. 

c-^«.  fc^i  V^^  (Reflect.  Pron.)")  one  self,  himself,  herself. 
Smg.&pl.^  'j  itself,  themselves. 

Scholar. 

What  difference  is  there  between  tne  and  mol;  te  and 
toi^  and  se^  (which  you  call  reflective)  and  soi? 
Master. 

The  Pronouns  passive^  me^  te^  le^  la^  les^  have  a  fixed 
place,  which  in  French  is  immediately  before  the  Verb ; 
but  mo/,  toi^  soi^  may  be  placed  at  the  beginning  or  end 
of  the  sentence,  without  that  close  connection  with  the 
Verb,  of  which  they  seem  independent.  These  latter 
also  admit  of  Prepositions  before  them,  which  the  former 
entirely  reject.  Me^  te^  nous^  vous  and  se^  coming  be- 
tween the  Verb  and  the  active  Pronouns  Je^  tu,  ii,  nousy 
vous^  /7.V,  which  precede  them,  render  the  Verb  rejlective; 
that  is  to  say,  they  reflect  the  action  of  the  agent  back  on 
itself;  Je  nChabille^  &c.  I  dress  myself,  &c.  Moi^toi^ 
soi,  can  never  render  a  Verb  rejlective*  These  distinc- 
tions have  induced  us  to  subdivide  those  Pronouns  into 
two  classes  ;  the  Passive^  as  me.,  te.,  se^  &c.  and  the  Dis» 
junctivcy  called  so,  because  they  are  often  disjoined  or  se- 
parated from  the  Verb. — Those  Disjunctive  Pronouns 
are  sometimes  active^  as  may  be  seen  m  some  of  the  fol- 
lowing phrases. 

The  following  tables  of  the  two  classes  of  Passive 
Pronouns,  will  merit  your  attention,  and  give  you  a  clear 
idea  of  their  use  in  speech* 

PASSIVE  PRO^OUJVS,  EXEMPLIFIED. 

rWrtie  connalt.  He  knows  we. 

^  J  II  ne  me  connait  pas.  He  does  not  know  me 


Me  connatt-il  ?  Does  he  know  tne  ? 

Ne  m£  connalt-il  pas  I  Does  he  not  know  m^? 


Me    t    m    5^  ^1  ^'^  do'^"2- ce  qu'il  m*avait  He  gave   to  nne  what  he 

'    °      ^\     promis.  had  promised  to  we. 

j^     ")      us.      CEUe  nous  aime.  She  loves  us. 

3    to  us.  i,EUe  nous  i'envoya.  She  sent  it  to  us. 


60  PHILOSOPHY 

Have  I  given  it  to  thee  ? 


f^    7    thee.    CJe  te  connais  parfaitement.        I  know  thee  perfectly, 
^  3tothee.  ^iTel'ai-je  donne  ? 


y      "^    you.     C  Je  i;oti*  en  previens.  I  inform  j/ou  of  it. 


f  e  vous  en  parle,  I  speak  to  you  of  it. 


Le,  him.  C II  le  ou  la  regut  avec  ami-     He  received  him  or  her 
La,  her,  \     tie.  with  friendship. 

Lui   ^.^^  J. '  ^  EUe  lui  en  envoya.  She  sent  some  to  him  or  her, 

Xes,       them.    Je  les  ai  vus,  w.  or  vues,  y.     I  have  seen  them. 

Leur,  to  them.     Je  leur  en  donnerai,  I  will  give  some  to  them.. 


PASSIVE  PROJVOUJVS,   REFLECTING  THE  VERB, 

EXEMPLIFIED. 

Me,  myself.     Je  me  connais.  I  know  myself. 

Te,   thyself.     Tu  te  connais.  Thou  knowest  thyself, 

^  7  himself.   C II  se  connajt.  He  knows  himself. 

5  herself.     (^  Elle  *e  connait.  She  knows  i6erje^. 

Noiis,  ourselves.     Nous  nous  connaissons.         We  know  ourselves. 
FoM*,  yourselves.  Vous  <DOM,y  connaissez.  You  know  ^j/owr^ye/wj. 

,Sc,  themselves,     lis  or  elles  ^e  connaissent.     They  know  them^selves. 


BISJUJVCTIVE  PROJVOUJVS,  EXEMPLIFIED, 

Vous  et  onoi  nous  perissons,"^ 

or,  C  Yon  3.nd  /perish, 

Nous  pcrissons  vous  &  moi.j 


^o^i  C       "^  Secourez-woi  dans  mon7  XT  i         •  •  r    ^ 

•'       malheur.  j  Help  we  m  my  misfortune. 

^^-  rVous   etes    venu   apres7  v^  r. 

.  ^       >  You  are  come  after  me. 

I       mx>t.  5 

■y-     ")     us.      C  Sans  nous  vous  n'en  viendrez     Without  us,  you  will  not 
''""^3     '^^-     \     pas  a  bout.  bring  it  about. 

^  .    ■>    thou.    C  Toi  &  lui  vous  serez  pimis.    Thou  and  he  will  be  punished, 
3    thee.     (^Pour  toi,  avec  toi,  par  toi.      Y ox  thee,  with  thee,  by  thee. 

Vous,    you.      Malgrc  syotw,  centre  a'ow.y,&,c.     In  spite  of  jom,  against  j/ozf. 

J   .  ">  he.   C  Lui  &  elle  iront  en  ville.    He  and  she  will  go  to  town. 

"'*  3  him.  ^Devant /wi,  derriere /w/.      Before -6/m,  behind  i)m, 

■pjj   ">  she.  C  Elle  Sc  toi  vous  ne  I'aurez  pas.     She  and  thee  shall  not  have  it. 
^  *^^  3  her.  (_  Je  suis  heureux  auprcs  dW/e.     I  am  happy  near  her. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  61 

^      -^  ,  r£w;f  8c  moi  nous  sommes")  Sr/6ey  and  I  are  agreed. 

m.p.C      em.  ^^yg^.  ^^^  jg  ^e  crains  rien.  j  With  them  I  fear  nothing. 

1-77     ")  .1-        C  Elles  8c  vous,  vous  serez  at-'i  7hey  and  you  will  be  de- 
•  P-  ^  C.  Je  ^^  saurais  me  passer  d^elles.  j  I  cannot  do  without  tbem. 

Note. ...The  above  Disjunctive  Pronouns  joined  to  the 
word  meme,  singular,  and  memes,  plural,  acquire  a  de- 
gree of  affirmative  energy  and  precision,  which  they  do 
not  possess  by  themselves.  Example:  Est-ce  lui  qui  a 
ose  le  faire  ?  Is  it  he  who  has  dared  to  do  it  ? — Qui : 
c'est  lui-meme*  Yes ;  it  is  he  himself. — lis  Pont  arrete 
eiix-memes  ;  they  themselves  have  arrested  him  ;  and  so 
on.  Practice  and  your  own  good  sense  will  best  direct 
you  in  the  use  of  this  word. 

Scholar. 

By  what  rule  am  I  to  be  governed  in  respectively  plac- 
ing le  or  /wi,  la  or  /w/,  and  les  or7«/r,  before  a  Verb  ? 
Master. 

I  will  lay  down  an  infallible  rule,  by  which  you  can 
avoid  mistakes,  on  such  occasions.  When  you  are  at 
a  loss  to  know  when  le  or  /z//,  should  be  used  in  French  ; 
take  notice,  that  if  the  English  Verb,  corresponding  with 
the  French  Verb,  admit  of  to  before  him,  her,  or  them, 
&c,  lui  or  leur  must  be  used  ;  but,  if,  on  the  contrary,  it 
does  not  admit  of  that  preposition,  /e,  /«,  or  les^  are  re- 
spectively placed  before  the  Verb. 
Scholar. 

Have  you  any  further  observations  to  make  on  the 
Pronouns  t 

Master. 

Yes  :  a  few  more,  which  I  recommend  to  your  at- 
tention. , 

The  Pronoun  Disjunctive,  /?//,  elle^  eiix  and  elles^  can- 
not be  used  in  speaking  of  things  :  instead  of  them  we 
use  the  Adverbs  y  and  en^  which  are  so  frequently  intro- 
duced in  the  French  language. 

EXAMPLES  ON  Y, 

Avoid  law  suits;  conscience  is  often 
concerned  in  thevi,  health  impair- 
ed by  theniy  and  property  wasted 
by  theni. 

Do  you  think  of  ray  business  ? 

Yes;  I  think  of  It. 

Are  you  lying  down  on  my  bed  ? 

Yes;  I  am  \)-*Z  down  on  iu 


1.  Fuyez  les  proc-s;  souvent  la  con- 
science s'^  intcresse,  la  santi6  ^ y 
altere,  Sc  les  biens  s' j  dissipent. 

Pensez-vous  a  mon  affaire  ? 

2.  Oui;   Y y  pense. 
Etes-vous  couche  sur  mon  lit  ? 

3.  Oui;  J '_)/ suis  couche. 


68  PHILOSOPHY 

In  the  first  example  y  occurs  three  times.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  put  for  a  eux;  in  the  second  and  third  places, 
ior  par  eux. 

In  the  second  example  y  serves  instead  of  a  elle^  as  re- 
lative to  affaire* 

In  the  third  example  y  is  put  for  sur  luiy  as  referring 
to  lit, 

EXAMPLE  ON  £JV. 

II  en  parle  toujours  ;  he  always  speaks  of  it  (or  of  them) 
alluding  to  a  thing  or  things  inanimate  :  thus,  en  serves 
for  de  lui^  d^elle,  d^eicx,  dei/es,  he. 

T  and  en^  are  sometimes  used  in  speaking  of  persons 
instead  of  Pronouns,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  and  con- 
ciseness of  expression. — EXAMPLES, 

Pensez-vous  a  Newton  ?        Do  you  think  of  Newton  ? 

Oui,  J'j/pense.  -  Yes,  I  think  g^ -6m, 

T  is  here  placed  for  a  lui. 

Combien  avez-vous  vu  de  dames  ?        How  many  ladies  have  you  seen  ? 

J'  en  ai  vu  trois,  I  have  seen  three  of  them. 

In  this  last  instance  en  is  put  for  d^elles. 

Scholar. 

Before  you  close  this  conversation,  I  desire  you  to  let 
me  know  why  the  denomination  of  Personal  is  given  to 
Pronouns  ? 

Master. 

Because  they  represent  persons^  that  is  to  say,  beings 
addressing,  or  addressed  by  other  beings. 
Scholar. 

From  what  is  the  word  person  derived  ? 
Master. 

To  explain  this  to  you,  I  must  have  recourse  to  the 
erudition  of  the  profoimd  Gebelin. 

"  We  are  indebted  for  this  word  to  the  Latins.  The 
*'  Greek  and  Latin  actors  never  appeared  on  the  stage, 
*'  but  with  masks,  which  covered  the  whole  head,  in  the 
*'  same  manner  as  a  helmet,  and  those  masks  were  dif- 
"  ferent,  according  to  the  parts  the  actors  had  to  perform. 
*'  Those  masks  were  made  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
^  voice  became  more  sonorous  and  more  full,  so  that  it 
"  much  better  filled  the  great  extent  of  ancient  theatres, 
"  which  were  fitted  for  the  public  at  large,  and  not  for  the 
*'  wealthiest  part  of  the  nation  only.  They  were  called 
*'  from  that  circumstance  persona.^  from  two  Latin  words 


OF  LANGUAGE.  63 

^^  per  and  sonat,  which  means  it  sounds  loudly* — The 
*'  same  name  was  also  given  to  the  actor  himself;  so 
"  they  called  him  persona,  all  well  as  his  mask.  Let  us 
"  not  be  surprized  at  it ;  it  is  the  same  thing  in  French ; 
''  we  call  masques  the  persons  who  appear  with  a  mask  ; 
"  so  we  say :  les  masques  sont  venus  ;  the  masks  are 
''  come :  ces  masques  etaient  tres  amusans  ;  these  masks 
*'  were  very  entertaining. — The  sense  of  the  word  per- 
"  sona  was  not  confined  to  these  limits,  it  extended  to 
"  the  part  of  actors  themselves  ;  afterwards  to  wax  fi- 
"  gures,  which  represent  persons  in  the  most  perfect 
"  manner. — We  see,  by  Warron,  that,  in  the  time  when 
"  the  Latin  language  had  reached  its  greatest  perfec- 
"  tion,  they  used  the  word  person  in  the  same  sense  in 
"  which  we  take  it  to  distinguish  the  three  parts  of  the 
"  actors  of  speech,  as  speaking,  as  being  spoken  to,  and 
"  being  those  of  whom  one  speaks. — Finally,  there  was 
"  but  one  step  more,  to  extend  this  word  to  every  human 
"  being,  considered  as  an  actor  in  the  great  scene  of  the 
"  world. — In  this  sense  it  designates  every  human  being 
"  living,  considered  as  making  use  of  his  active  faculties, 
*'^  fulfilling  any  function,  and  performing  any  part  what- 
*'  ever." 

I  will  conclude  this  conversation  by  observing,  that  the 
word  Pronoun,  in  its  general  acceptation,  is  a  substitute 
or  representative  of  the  Noun  ;  and  as  such  it  ought,  as 
well  as  the  Noun,  to  represent  the  object  alluded  to  ;  but, 
instead  of  the  object,  it  only  represents  the  relations  of 
subjects  in  the  communication  of  our  thoughts  :  those  re- 
lations being  only  those  views  of  the  mind  which  suit  all 
in  similar  circumstances,  the  words,  which  represent 
them,  having  no  similitude  to  the  Noun,  the  representa- 
tive of  particular,  sensible  objects,  cannot  be  said  to  be 
used  instead  of  it.  In  short,  the  Noun  gives  an  idea  of 
the  subject,  but  the  Pronoun  gives  only  an  idea  of  its 
relation  ;  two  things,  which  ought  not  to  be  confounded. 

We  should  now  proceed  to  the  Verb,  which,  next  to 
the  Noun  and  Adjective,  is  the  most  interesting  part  of 
speech,  if  propriety  did  not  make  it  incumbent  on  us  to 
restore  to  the  class  of  Nouns,  some  words,  which  the 
generality  of  grammarians  have  hitherto  ranked  among 
the  Pronouns.  These  shall  make  the  subject  of  the  next 
conversation. 


64  PHILOSOPHY 

NOTE  ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PRONOUNS. 

AFTER  having  shown  the  origin  of  Nouns — that  of  the  Adjectives— 
the  probable  origin  of  Articles — the  reader  would  justly  susjiect  a  chasm  in 
our  systena  were  that  of  the  Pronouns  left  unaccounted  for.  Let  us  there- 
fore endeavor  to  show  how  they  were  introduced. 

These  short  significant  words  were  adopted  into  language  after  the 
invention  of  the  Verb,  just  as  the  invention  of  Nouns  preceded  that  of  the 
Articles.  Suppose  then  a  language  with  the  parts  of  speech  already  de- 
scribed, and  the  Verb  ;  and  let  us  try  to  make  ourselves  understood,  without 
the  assistance  of  Pronouns;  the  language  of  action  will  supply  us  with  pro- 
per substitutes.  The  person  who  speaks,  wishing  to  tell  some  adventure 
of  which  he  himself  was  the  hero,  would  press  his  breast  with  his  hand,  to 
signify  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  action  which  he  would  afterwards 
express  by  the  assistance  of  the  Verb,  By  pressing  his  breast  with  viva- 
city and  warmth  in  order  to  represent  himself  with  more  lively  colours,  as 
an  actor,  such  a  sound  as  ye,  I,  e,  ie  would  emanate  strongly  and  distinctly 
from  his  lungs.  This  sound  being  produced  in  similar  circumstances  as 
those  we  have  mentioned,  and  being  often  so  repeated,  inen  would  naturally 
associate  the  action  and  the  sound  together  ;  so  that  the  sight  of  the  action 
would  awaken  in  the  mind  the  idea  of  the  sound,  and  vice  versa.  There- 
fore, at  night,  the  sound  owing  to  the  association,  was  substituted  safely  to 
the  manual  sign  thus  rendered  invisible.  Many  advantages  having  beeri 
gradually  discovered  in  substituting  the  sound  for  the  sign,  while  it  did  not 
endanger,  in  the  least,  the  certainty  of  being  understood,  the  latter  was 
after  a  while  intirely  laid  aside,  and  was  used  only  along  with  the  sound 
now  become  a  Pronoun,  to  give  more  weight  to  the  assertion  or  affirmation 
expressed  by  the  Verb.  To  support  this  plausible  conjecture,  we  shall  call 
in  the  assistance  of  the  profound  Gebelin. 

"  The  words,"  says  he,  "  which  serve  us  as  Pronouns,  Je,  me,  tu,  ie, 
il,  8cc.  are  common  to  the  European  and  Asiatic  languages;  we  discover 
in  them,  in  that  respect,  the  difference,  which  the  revolution  of  ages  and 
changes  of  pronunciation  have  brought  about. 

"  Let  us  not  be  surprised  at  it :  the  words  were  too  simple— were  re- 
presentative in  a  manner  too  striking  not  to  have  been  transmitted  down 
to  us — to  have  been  anihilated. — What  is  true  and  natural  subsists  for 
ever,  because  it  always  pleases,  and  is  always  looked  after  with  eagerness 
These  words  necessarily  occurring  in  speech  could  never  be  forgotten ;  each 
repetition  was  an  inducement  to  repeat  them  again,  as  soon  as  an  opportu- 
nity should  offer,  and  it  offered  continually. 

*«  The  Pronoun  Je  of  the  first  person  is  formed  out  of  the  primitive 
words  e,  ie,  \y\\\c\\  always  designated  existence  ;"  as  we  will  show  in  our 
conversation  on  the  Verb.  "  Could  a  more  expressive  word  be  adopted  to 
point  out  the  person  that  speaks — that  presents  itself — that  says,  here  I 
am  ? 

"  So  the  Deity  is  represented  as  having  chosen  for  his  name  that  sig- 
nificant term  meaning  animation,  life,  breathing.  Hence  sprung  the  word 
leoua  of  the  Hebrews,  which  signifies  (word  for  word)  Je,  I,  or  I  am 
him  who  is — Also  the  Iou-piter  of  the  Latins,  which  means,  (word  for 
word)  Ie  Pere  ye,-  the  Father  /." 

The  origin  of  the  Pronoun  of  the  second  person  may  be  accounted  for, 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  did  for  that  of  the  Pronoun  of  the  first  person. 

Whenever'we  address  a  person,  we  naturally  try  to  arrest,  attention  by 
stretching  our  arms  towards  him.  If  we  do  this  with  energy  or  force,  a 
sound  will  emanate,  which  differently  modified  by  the  organ  of  speech, 
will  give  tu,  toe,  thou,  &:c.  and  become  naturallyafter  a  while  the  substitute 
for  the  sign. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  65 

With  regard  to  the  third  person,  as  it  is  supposed  not  to  be  here  but 
there>  it  is  more  than  probable  that  a  Noun  of  place  gave  birth  to  that 
Pronoun;  so  we  find  that  in  the  Latin  and  French,  ille  and  il  (according 
to  Gebelin)  are  derived  from  the  prin^itive  /,  which  designated  the  side^ 
the  wing,  the  place ;  the  Pronoun  lui  coines  from  the  Article  le  and  the 
words  hui  and  hou  which  designated  also  the  place. 

The  English  Pronoun  he,  comes  therefore  probably  froin  the,  by  drop- 
ping the  t,-  and  the  originated,  as  we  showed  from  there,  a  Noun  of  place. 


CONVERSATION  VII. 

OF  JVOUJVS,  GEKERALLY  RECEIVED  ASPROJ^OUjYS. 
Scholar. 
WHAT  do  you  mean  by  those  words^  which  yoii  re- 
marked in  the  foregoing  conversation  were  improperly 
classed  among  the  Pronouns  ? 

Master. 
The  following  Nouns,  viz.  on^personne^  rien^  quiconque^ 
autrui. 

Scholar. 
What  is  the  signification  of  the  monosyllable  oriy  which 
so  frequently  occurs  in  the  French  t 
Master. 
It  corresponds  with  any  of  the  following  words,  viz. 
one^  it,  we,  they,  nieUy  people,  any  body^  or  any  one,  and  is 
used  before  all  the  tenses  of  the   French  Verbs,  in  the 
third  person  singular,  the  Verb  generally  called  hnpersoH" 
al,  excepted,  before  which,  instead  of  the  former,  tl  is 
used EXAMPLE. 

rone  "1  r.u'c       -\ 

On  dit  <  any  body     V  says  "^  >,    ^/    ?•  say,  or  it  is  said. 
L  any  ofie      J  C  they    J 

This  monosyllable,  as  it  goes  before  no  other  word  but 
a  Verb,  has  been  taken  for  a  Pronoun.  It  is,  however, 
a  contraction  of  the   Noun  homme,*  which  no  one  can 

*  According  to  Sicard,  the  following  is  the  manner  in  which  this 
contraction  has  been  effected : 

Tous  lea  homnies, 

les  hommes, 

un  homme, 

homme. 


VOL.  II. 


66  PHILOSOPHY 

consider  as  a  Pronoun :   on^  which  is  an  abridgment  oy 
contraction  thereof,  cannot,  therefore,  be  called  a  Pro-* 
noun. 

It  is  necessarily  used  in  French  before  the  Verb  that 
expresses  what  has  been  done,  experienced,  &c.  by  a 
whole  body  or  class  of  people,  taken  collectively  j  which 
cannot  be  accurately  rendered  in  French  by  the  third 
person  plural  ils  or  elles^  especially  when  the  subjects, 
which  Pronouns  represent,  have  not  been  before  men- 
tioned. 

Suppose,  in  conversing  with  you,  I  say,  on  mange  du 
bon  fruit  en  France,  I  signify  by  the  phrase,  that  the  peo- 
ple in  general  eat  good  fruit  in  France.  If  I  had  said, 
ils  mangent,  they  eat,  &c.  (as  it  may  be  expressed  in  Eng- 
lish) it  would  be  vague  and  unsatisfactory,  and  the  dubi- 
ous sense  of  the  terms  would  naturally  prompt  my  hearers 
to  ask  me,  who  eat  ?  and  how  many  eat  ?  &c. 

On  is  sometimes  substituted  for  quelqiCun^  some  body, 
any  body,  &c.  in  the  following  phrase  and  the  like,  as  on 
jious  ecoute,  some  body  listens  to  us. 
Scholar, 

Convince  me  that  Personne  is  a  Noun. 
Master. 

I  will. — >As  this  word  is  always  preceded  by  an  Article 
(except  in  one  instance,  where  it  is  understood),  such  a 
leading  circumstance  would  have  been  sufficient  to  prevent 
grammarians  from  ranging  it  in  a  class  in  which  it  is 
misplaced. 

EXAMPLES. 

J'ai  vu  bien  des  personnes.  I  have  seen  many  persons. 

Una  personne  in*a  dit.  A  person  has  told  me. 

Une  personne  ne  m'a  pas  dit.  A  person  has  not  told  me, 

•  Personne  ne  m'a  dit.  tio  person^  or  nobody  has  told  me. 

J'ai  recontre  une  personne.  I  have  met  a  person. 

Je  n'ai  pas  rencontre  une  personne.        I  have  not  met  a.  person. 

Je  n'ai  rencontre  *personne  I  have  met  no  person,  or  nobody^ 

Pet  Sonne  without  the  Article  and  negative    signifies 
any  body, 

Personne  a-t-il  jamais  doutc  de  I'ex-    Has  any  body  ever  doubted  the  ex- 
istence de  Dieu  ?  istence  of  God  ? 

*  The  Article  negative  aucune  is  understood  before  personne. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  ^ 

Scfe:OLAR. 

Can  you  prove  that  rien^  quiconque  and  autrui  are 
Nouns  ? 

Master. 
Certainly. — Rien  is  no  more  a  Pronoun  than  Personne : 
k  is  the  accusative  rem  of  the  Latin  Noun  res  (thing), 
which,  in  becoming  French,  has  undergone  some  ahera- 
tion :  it  admits  the  Article  as  well  as  personne^  and 
then  means  a  trifling  things  as,  vous  vous  fachez  pour  itn 
rien;  you  fret  or  become  angry  for  a  mere  trijie*  When 
it  is  preceded  or  followed  by  the  negative  Wf,  it  means 
nothing.— EXAMPLES. 

Je  n'  ai  rien.  I  have  nothing. 

Mien  ne  I'epouvante.  Nothing  frightens  him. 

Without  the  negative  and  Article,  it  signifies  any  thing ;  as, 

y  a-t-il  rien  de  plus  beau  que  cela  ?        Is  there  tmy  thing  finer  than  that  ? 

^ticonque,  whoever,  or  whosoever,  in  its  full  extent, 
implies  every  man  who :  one  of  these  three  terms  is  a 
Noun  that,  of  course,  must  govern :  if  we  are,  therefore, 
to  give  the  elliptical  word  quiconque  any  denomination, 
that  of  Noun  unquestionably  demands  a  preference. 

Autrui  is  also  an  elliptical  term,  composed  of  two 
words,  autre  and  homme,  the  first  an  Adjective,  the  second 
a  Noun  :  autrui  is,  therefore,  in  every  sense  of  the  word, 
a  Noun.— EXAMPLE. 

Ne  faites  pas  a  autrui  ce  que  vous  ne     Do  not  unto  others  what  you  would 
voudriez  pas  qu'on  vous  fit.  not  they  should  do  unto  you. 


CONVERSATION  VIIL 

OF  THE   VERB. 

Scholar. 
WHAT  is  a  Verb  ? 

Master. 
It  is  an   essential  and  indispensable  word  which  ex- 
presses the  coexistence  of  an  attribute  (that  is  to  say  of 


66  PHILOSOPHY 

a  quality,  colour,  form,  &c.)  with  any  subject  or  object 
whatever. 

Scholar. 
How  many  kinds  of  Verbs  are  there  ? 

Master. 
From  this  definition  of  a  Verb,  you  may  readily  con- 
clude that  we  acknowledge  but  one  ;  for,  existence  being 
simple  and  indivisible^  one  Verb  alone  is  sufficient  to  de- 
fine it, 

^v,  Scholar. 

What" is  that  Verb? 

Master. 
In  all  languages,  the  Verb  to  be^  which  is  called  the  Ab^ 
stract  Verby   as  it  is  separated  from  all  qviality,  and  thus 
considered  in  itself  as  a  substance,  it  is  sometimes  termed 
the  Substantive  Verb, 

Scholar. 
What,  then,  is  meant  by  an  Adjective  Verb  ;  a  mode  of 
expression  often  used  in  grammars  ? 
Master. 
They  generally  understand  thereby,  such  words  as,  to 
love^  aimer  ;  to  speak^  parler,  &:c.  which  are  denominated 
V^rb"^  because  the  Verb  to  be  is  interwoven  with  their  very 
existence,  and  intimately  connected  with  the  word  de- 
noting the  quality^  froin  which  they  take  the  appellation 
of  Adjective  Verbs :  we  cannot  always  by  the  eye  perceive 
the  connection,  but  analysis,   and  sometimes  etymology, 
will  evince  that  in  all  languages,  such  expressions,  as  to 
love^   to  speak^  &c.   are  by  an   ellipsis,    equivalent  to  the 
phrases,  to  be  loving^  to  be  speakings  &c. 
Scholar. 
How  many  kinds  of  Adjective  Verbs  are  there? 

Master. 
Two  :  Active  and  Stationary.  The  first  are  so  called, 
because  they  comprehend  an  active  quality,  which  extends 
its  influence  to  a  certain  object ;  as,  for  instance,  w^hen  I 
say,  I  esteem  yoii^  or  rather,  I  am  esteeming  you^  the  active 
quality  expressed  by  esteeming-,  is  extended  to  you,  who 
become  thereby  the  object  of  my  esteem. 

The  second  are  denominated  stationary^  because  the 
quality  does  not  exceed  the  limits  of  the  subject,  as  / 
zvalk^  I  sleeps  I  die :  when  I  pronounce  those  Verbs,  you 
will  not  ask  me,  what  or  whom  do  you  walk,  &c.  because 
you  find  no  object  to  which  the  action  extends. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  69 

Scholar. 

What  are  those  Verbs,   which  are  termed  in  many 
grammars,  passive^  neuter.,  deponent^  active-pure^  incho- 
active,  transitive,  intransitive,  mono-personal,  he. 
Master. 

The  Latins  having  Passive  Verbs  in  their  language, 
grammarians  more  anxious  to  follow  that  language,  than 
give  us  accurate  notions  of  our  own,  have  obtruded  on 
us  a  sort  of  Passive  Verbs,  which  the  genius  of  our  lan- 
guage will  not  admit.  Such  passives,  in  French  and 
English,  are  rendered  by  ^tre,  to  be,  and  the  past  Parti- 
ciple of  the  Adjective  Verb.  Example  :  Amor,  a  Latin 
passive,  is  rendered  by  /  am  loved,  Je  suis  aime.  The 
neuter  are  our  Stationary  Verbs,  and  as  to  the  other  classes 
you  have  mentioned,  they  only  tend  to  perplex  and  retard 
the  progress  of  the  learner,  by  the  introduction  of  unne- 
cessary distinctions  and  barbarous  terms. 
Scholar. 

How  ipany  and  what  properties  appertain  to  a  Verb  ? 
Master. 

Five;  1st,  the  person  ;  2d,  number;  3d,  tense;  4th, 
mood,  and  5th,  conjugation. 

Scholar. 

As  I  have  acquired  a  notion  of  the  person  and  number 
of  a  Verb,  by  attending  to  your  conversation  on  the  Pro- 
nou7i^  I  now  request  you  will  give  me  seme  information 
respecting  the  tenses. 

Master. 

The  tenses  are  the  various  epochs  in  which  the  events 
related  have  happened.  These  epochs  compared  with 
each  other,  and  then  collectively  and  respectively  with  the 
instant  de  la  parole,  or  present  utterance  of  speech  (which 
is  the  standard  of  judging  of  epochs),  will  give  us  the 
different  tenses  of  a  Verb, 

Scholar. 

How  many  tenses  are  there  ? 
Master. 

Three,  general  and  absolute  ;  the  past,  present,  and 
future,  which,  you  may  perceive,  from  the  very  definition 
of  the  Verb,  exist  in  every  language.  When  we  have 
occasion  to  express  the  past,  pre^^ent,  2.Yid  future  existence 
of  a  subject,  under  a  certain  attribute,  those  different 
modes  ol  considering  existence  wiii  necessarily  produce 
the   three  tenses  above  mentioned :     The  past  may  be 


TO  PHILOSOPHY 

represented  by  yesterday  ;  the  present  by  tO'day  ;  and  the^ 
future  by  to-morrow. 

But  man,  too  ambitious  to  convey  his  sentiments  in 
broken  sentences  (which  would  be  the  case  were  he 
confined  to  those  tenses  only),  and  aiming  at  improvement 
in  language,  began  to  consider  the  time  of  events  under 
different  relations  from  the  present  utterance  of  speech^ 
and  to  mark  his  actions,  by  contrasting  them  with  one 
another  in  the  current  of  human  affairs. 

To  express  those  different  views  of  the  mind,  he  made 
the  Verb  undergo  various  modifications,  and  thus  divided 
the  tenses  into  moods. 

Scholar. 

What  are  moods  I 

Master. 

The  various  ways  of  considering  the  action  affirmed, 
either  by  itself  or  with  respect  to  other  events  with  which 
it  is  compared,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  the  perform- 
ance or  relation  thereof. 

Scholar. 

How  many  moods  are  there  t 
Master. 

Five :  the  infinitive  (including  the  participle')^  indicative 
or  affirmative^  imperative^  conditional^  and  subjunctive :  I 
shall  define  them,  after  you  have  attained  the  conjugation 
of  the  Verb  porter^  to  carry ;  and  I  think  you  will  be 
pleased  with  the  denominations  I  have  given  to  tenses ; 
on  consideration,  they  cannot  fail  to  appear  more  fit  and 
proper  than  those  by  which  they  were  formerly  distin- 
guished. 

Scholar. 

What  do  you  signify  by  the  Conjugation  of  a  Verb  ? 
Master. 

The  class  it  belongs  to,  which  is  determined  by  the 
termination  of  the  infinitive.  The  French  grammarians, 
having  observed  that  different  Verbs  of  the  same  termi- 
nation in  the  infinitive,  had  also  similar  endings  in  their 
corresponding  tenses,  ranged  them  into  one  class,  which 
they  termed  Conjugation^  from  the  Latin  word  Conjuga- 
tion to  signify  they  were  yoked  by  them  together,  like 
oxen  to  the  plough. 

We  have  chosen  in  this  work  the  Verb  porter^  to  carry, 
as  a  model  for  those  ending  in  ^r,  in  the  infinitive  :  with 
its  various  tenses,  it  will  serve  you  as  a  model  by  which 


OF  LANGUAGE.  Tl 

the  rest  of  the  same  conjugation  may  be  formed.    This  is 
called  the^rst,  being  by  Tar  the  most  numerous. 

Those  Verbs  ending  in  /r,  oir  and  re,  having  been  re- 
spectively classed  in  the  same  manner,  form  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  conjugation  in  the  French  language* 
Grammarians,  having  collected  all  those  Verbs  ending  in 
er,  ir,  oir  and  re,  that  varied  from  their  models  in  the 
terminations  of  their  corresponding  tenses,  called  them 
Irregulars  in  contrast  to  the  four  regular  conjugations^ 
Methodical  as  this  arrangement  may  appear,  it  is,  how- 
ever, a  servile  imitation  of  the  Latin  grammarians,  who 
admit  only  oi  four  conjugations. 

No  longer  respecting  the  inflexible  laws  of  the  imperi- 
ous genius  of  a  truly  foreign  language,  several  judicious 
grammarians,  in  their  attempt  to  reduce  to  a  smaller 
number  the  vast  collection  of  irregulars  that  this  Latino- 
Franco  classification  introduced,  by  selecting  several 
Verbs  among  them  as  models  for  various  classes,  have 
successively  made  the  number  of  regular  conjugations 
amount  to  six,  seven,  ten,  eleven,  twelve  and  thirteen. 

Though  I  feel  happy  in  doing  justice  to  the  many  ad- 
vantages resulting  from  those  new  systems  of  improve- 
ment on  the  old,  yet  much  reflection,  and  (1  may  venture 
to  say)  considerable  and  successful  experience  in  an  ex- 
tensive line  of  tuition  have  authorized  me  to  adopt  a 
mode  of  conjugation  whose  simplicity  will,  I  trust,  re- 
commend it  to  the  votaries  of  language. 
Scholar. 

Be  kind  enough  to  impart  it  to  me. 
Master. 

With  pleasure.  I  admit  eight  regular  conjugations, 
and  eight  classes  of  irregulars,  as  follow,  viz. 

EIGHT  REGULAR  CONJUGATIONS. 

Table   L 

1.  er,  as  porter,  to  carry. 

2.  ir,  as  pun/r,  to  punish. 

3.  f/>,  vir,  or  mir,  as  sen//>,  serc/r,  dorw2/>,  to  feel, 

to  serve,  to  sleep. 

4.  enir,  as  tenir,  to  hold. 

5.  evoir,  as  recevoir,  to  receive. 

6.  re,    as  vendrc,  to  sell. 

7.  uire,  a&  tradw/r^,  to  translate. 


72  PHILOSOPHY 

8.  indre^  as  joindrej  ipeindre,  crmndre^  to  join,  to  paint, 
to  fear. 

EIGHT  CLASSES  OF  IRREGULARS. 
Table  II. 


1.  offr'ir^  to  offer. 

2.  courir^  to  run. 

3.  connaUre^  to  know. 

4.  mettre^  to  put. 


5.  prendre^  to  take. 

6.  faire^  to  do  or  make. 

7.  ecrire^  to  write. 

8.  fi^/>f,  to  say  or  telL 


By  a  free  command  of  the  conjugation  of  the  forego- 
ing Tables,  you  will  be  enabled  to  conjugate  about  4700 
Verbs,  4051  of  which  (including  those  which  have  been 
introduced  since  the  French  Revolution)  belong  to  the 
Jirst  conjugation,  according  to  Adrien  Savary,  who 
by  an  accurate  inquiry,  has  made  out  an  ingenious  list  of 
most  of  the  French  Verbs. 

Scholar. 

Do  the  foregoing  Tables  embrace  the  conjugation  of 
the  whole  ? 

Master. 

Not  entirely  ;  as  a  few  remaining  (which  I  could  not 
possibly  class)  will  be  found  in  the  alphabetical  order  of 
conjugation  in  this  work,  following  the  eight  classes  of 
Irregulars  above  mentioned. 

You  must  now  devote  your  sole  attention  to  the  auxili- 
ary Verb  avoir^  to  have,  which  should  hold  the  first  seat 
in  your  memory,  and  the  first  place  in  conjugation,  as  it 
essentially  serves  to  form  the  past  tenses  of  almost  every 
Verb  in  the  French  language,  including  also  those  of  the 
generating  Verb  Hre^  to  be. 


JVECESSITY  AKD  ORIGIN  OF  THE   VERB, 

SCARCE  had  man,  in  the  use  of  the  Adjective,  exerted  the  faculty  of 
abstraction  to  which  he  is  indebted  for  all  his  progress  in  civilization  and  in 
the  region  of  Science,  when  he  found  it  necessary  to  restore  to  objects 
the  qualities  he  had  separated  from  thenn. — In  reality  for  what  purpose 
did  he  wish  to  speak  of  objects,  if  it  were  not  to  acquaint  his  associates 
with  his  notions  of  them,  as  being  possessed  of  such  and  such  qualities, 
properties,  forms,  8cc ;  but  the  word  so  necessary  for  this  purpose  was  not  in 
his  possession  ;  such  a  word  was  to  be  acquired  as  would  unite  in  speech  the 
Noun  with  its  Adjective,  as  objects  in  the  Universe  are  united  with  their  qua- 
lities. This  was  the  word  which  was  thought  to  be  so  useful  by  the  Latins 
that  they  denominated  it  Vehbum  (the  word),  giving  it  the  name  of  the 


OF  LANGUAGE.  73 

nr"hoIe  species  itself,  thereby  importing  that  they  looked  upon  it  as  the  *k- 
preme  laord. 

He  was  (as  yet}  to  receive  from  the  bountiful  hand  of  Nature  that  sim- 
ple and  magic  sound  which  alone  could  give  to  speech  that  connection  and 
animation  necessary  to  portray  faithfully  the  objects  of  Creation,  whose 
-dependence,  life  and  motion  are  so  conspicuous — Mean  while,  he  was 
obliged  to  mention  the  word  denoting  the  quality  along  with  the  same  of 
the  object,  to  signify  that  he  conceived  the  object  endowed  with  such 
quality — But  how  imperfect  this  mode  was  that  could  not  express  whe- 
ther the  quality  s\xiit6.  presently ,  had  suited,  or  -vcould  suit  the  object ! — An 
important  and  absolutely  necessary  distinction  without  which  no  clearness 
or  intelligibility  can  exist  in  language. 

As  it  was  not  in  his  povrer  to  invent  that  viord,  necessity  rendered  his 
natural  disposition  to  observation  more  acute,  by  which  means  he  disco- 
vered the  one  nature  had  designed  for  him ;  and  it  was  the  only  one  fit  to 
represent  the  sign  of  life,  or  existence,  as  it  is  an  imitative  word,  a  perfect 

ONOMATOPEE. 

This  word  is  /5/,  het,  aist,  ast,  hei,  est-i,  est,  e,  evj,  es,  ets  ys,  is,  ist,  test,- 
■as  and  es,  at,  eis,  which  is  found  in  the  Hindoo,  Hebrew,  Persian,  Ara- 
bian, Greek,  Latin,  French,  English,  Polish,  &c, 

•Man,  in  the  course  of  his  observations,  could  not  have  failed  to  discover 
the  principal  share  that  respiration  has  in  promoting  and  supporting  life, 
so  that  where  the  former  commences,  the  latter  of  necessity  attends ;  and 
where  it  ceases,  the  flame  of  life  is  extinguished.  Could  he,  therefore, 
have  chosen  a  surer  mode  of  being  generally  understood,  when  he  would 
signify  the  existence  of  the  object  of  his  affections,  or  of  his  love ;  than  to 
liave  inaitated  in  a  strong  and  impressive  manner  the  sound  of  respiration 
itself,  so  as  to  produce  some  of  the  words  above  mentioned ;  such  as  the 
^st  of  the  French,  or  the  is  of  the  English,  Sec. 

Man,  now  in  possession  of  a  word  that  so  naturally  pictured  existence, 
could  not  fail  to  use  it  to  signify  the  existence  or  union  of  qualities  with 
tlie  objects  they  modify ;  and  in  order  that  language  should  be  a  correct 
picture  of  objects  and  their  relations,  dejjendencies  &.C.  in  nature,  it  was 
placed  between  the  Noun  and  Adjective.  When  receiving  from  nature 
this  inestimable  gift,  he  could  not  fail  of  being  understood  by  all  as  soon  as  he 
uttered  it,  because  it  faithfully  represented  what  every  one  felt  within  him- 
self. This  new  term  afterwards  became  associated  with  the  Pronouns  in 
the  following  manner. — One  said,  first,  as  for  instance,  the  Hindoos,  Tne  is 
£ood;  thee  is  goody  Sec,  observing  to  place  the  Pronouns  first — But  of  this 
monotony  some  nations  soon  became  tired,  and  placed  a  termination  bor- 
rowed fronn  the  Pronoun  itself  immediately  after  the  Verb,  in  order  to  vary 
the  termin3,tion  of  each  person.  Thus  some  of  the  Asiatic  nations  said 
•ei-mi  (for  the  first  person)  which  means  is-nie  instead  of  me-is:  ei-s,  for 
the  second  person,  whose  Pronoun  is  represented  by  the  final  s — This  A^- 
atic  mode  of  expression  found  its  way  into  Greece  and  Italy  with  the  Ori- 
ental Colonies — After  a  series  of  alterations,  ei-7ni  was  changed  into  sum 
among  the  Latins,  then  into  suim*  which  formed  the  suis  of  the  French  ; 
so  that  the  French  say  now  j^e  suis,  which  seems  to  have  no  relation  with 
the  primitive  word  est  or  ei,  while  they  have  preserved  it  for  their  second 
and  third  persons,  tu  est,  il  est,-  and  this  sufficiently  explains  why  the  Pro- 
nouns being  united  with  the  Verb,  were  no  longer  expressed  by  themselves ; 
i  n  fact,  as  they  were  blended  with  the  Verb  itself,  it  would  have  been  use- 
less to  repeat  them. 

But  when  that  union  or  solder  was  entirely  lost  sight  of  or  forgotten,  the 
Verb,  thus  altered,  no  longer  showed  the  Pronouns :  They  thought  then  that  it 

*  See  Gebelin,  Grammaire  Universelie. 
VOL.    II.  L 


n  PHILOSOPHY 

designated  by  itse'f,  persons,  and,  of  course,  carried  in  itse-^t\\e  force  of  tli© 
Pronouns.  This  circumstance  threw  all  speculations  on  the  Verb  into  con- 
fusion, and  made  gram.marians  ascribe  to  it  the  properties  of  the  Pronouns, 
the  principal  of  which  are  Activety  and  Passiveness  that  certainly  cannot  be 
discovered  in  the  pure  Verb,  which  last  is  the  link  and  nothing  else  between 
a  Noun  and  its  Adjectives.  And  hence  arose  the  erroneous  opinion  of 
some  grammarians  that  Pronouns  might  be  dispensed  with. 

Besides  the  two  manners  above  mentioned  of  combining  the  Verb  with 
the  Pronoun,  a  third  one  v/as  formed  afterwards  ;  it  consisted  in  using  the 
Verb  thus  united  with  the  Pronoun,  after  the  Greek  fashion,  and  in  hav- 
ing it  preceded  besides  by  the  Pronoun,  either  because  the  Verbal  Pronoun 
had  become  so  much  altered,  that  it  was  no  longer  to  be  known  as  in  suls, 
where  they  no  longer  discover  any  features  of  the  Pronoun -Wie  ,•  or  because 
some  languages  that  used  this  third  method,  were  too  much  used  to  place 
the  Pronoun  before  the  Verb,  to  sufier  it  after.  Such  are  many  modern 
languages,  and  among  others  the  French  in  which  they  say  ye  suh,  tu  es, 
il  est,  nous  sonnues,  vous  etes,  Us  sont ;  while  the  Greeks,  in  a  much  shorter 
way,  said,  ei-mi,  ei-s,  ei  or  esii,  es-vten,  es-te,  ei-si,  Sc  enti. 


FORMATION  OF  THE 
ELLIPTICAL  OR  ADJECTIVE   VERBS. 

WE  have  maintained,  which  will  appear  very  strange  and  paradoxical 
to  almost  every  Grammarian,  that  there  existed  but  one  Verb  and  that  it 
was  etre,  to  be  ;  that  with  regard  to  the  other  Verbs  they  derived  their 
property  of  expressing  existence  from  the  circumstance  of  being  interwo- 
ven or  blended  with  that  Verb,  while  they  themselves  were  nothing  but 
the  word  denoting  the  quality.  We  are  going  to  prove,  at  least  for  the 
French  language,  and  that  too  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  that  it  is  the  case 
for  all  and  every  one  of  its  Verbs  whatever.  Let  us  select  for  that  purpose 
the  Ycvh  port-er,  which  we  have  adopted  as  the  model  of  conjugation  for 
the  most  numerous  class  cf  Verbs  in  the  language. 

1st.  They  probably  said,  it  est portant,  as  may  be  said  in  English,  but 
not  now  in  French  ;  as  that  mode  of  expression,  which  is  the  only  natural 
one  in  the  origin  of  language,  has  probably  been  lost  through  the  lapse  of 
ages  ;  a  transposition  of  the  Verb  est  took  place  from  the  same  principle 
which  actuated  some  nations  with  regard  to  the  change  of  place  of  Pro- 
nouns, aud  they  said,  il  portant  est,  then  more  concisely,  il  port-est  by- 
suppressing  the  termination  a7Jt  as  well  as  the  other  7iasal  terininatives  eii, 
ens,  ing,  &c.  which,  as  respiration  or  life  is  always  strongly  manifested 
through  the  nose,  always  designated  active  existence.  This  they  could 
easily  do  as  a?it  left  its  property  of  designating  the  action  of  an  animate 
being,  associated  v/ith  the  first  syllable  oi port-ant,  TK\s port-est  througli 
a  love  for  that  brevity  which  is  always  by  men  framing  language  carried  as 
far  as  may  be  consistent  with  the  necessity  of  being  clearly  understood, 
was  judiciously  changed  into  port-e,  in  which  the  word  est  denoting  exist- 
ence is  reduced  to  the  smnple  element  e,  while  no  inconvenience  would  re- 
sult therefrom,  its  value  being  naturally  felt  and  agreed  upon.  Tti  es  por- 
tant becaine,  in  the  same  manner,  tu  partes.  When  they  came  to  je  suit 
portant,  they  felt  that  analogy  would  be  destroyed  were  they  to  make  that 
mode  of  expression  undergo  the  same  changes  as  the  two  other  persons  of 
the  Verb ;  and,  therefore,  (as  also  the  Pronoun  was  different)  without 
any  fear  of  being  misunderstood  they  made  the  £rst  person  similar  to  thQ 
third. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  7S 

Many,  I  doubt  not,  may  think  it  extraordinary  that  I  should  have  begun 
this  decomposition  of  the  Adjective  Verbs  with  the  third  person  instead  of 
the  ^rst,  as  is  done  in  the  conjugations  of  every  grammar.  I  answer  to 
this  charge  that  in  an  analysis  so  important  as  the  present,  we  have  been 
desirous  of  carrying  exactness  as  high  as  we  possibly  could.  In  fact,  as 
mankind  had  to  relate  what  they  had  seen  done,  or  what  they  had  disco- 
vered, before  they  could  express  what  they  felt,  it  is  certainly  with  the 
third  person  that  the  primitive  conjugation  began. 

In  the  Present  anterior  and  the  Present  pos-erior  of  the  Indicative  mood, 
xs  well  as  of  the  Conditional,  the  Verb  etre,  to  be,  can  be  easily  traced 
through  every  person. 

EXAMPLE  FOR  THE  PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

J'  etais  portant       became  Je  port-e:- ais  then  Je  port-ais. 
tu  etais  portant                       tu   j)ortei -az's  tu   port-ais. 

il  etait  portant  il  Tpon-et-ait  il  port-ait. 

nous  ctions  portant  nous  itort-et-icns  nous  port-ions, 

vous  etiez  portant  vous  ^ort-et-iez  vous  port-iez. 

ils  etaient  portant  ils  port-et-aient  ils  port-aient. 

We  trust  it  is  needless  to  give  more  examples,  to  show  the  existence  of 
etrc  in  the  final  termination  of  almost  every  person  of  every  French  Verb. 
We  have  at  the  end  of  the  French  conjugation  given  a  table  of  those  very 
terminations  which  the  scholar  himself  may  compare  with  any  Verb.  This 
comparison  cannot  fail  cf  being  useful,  by  causing  him  to  remember  the 
termination  conamon  to  each  Verb,  aiid  thereby  sheltering  his  Orthography 
from  blunders. 

In  Greek  Verbs,  the  Verb  etre  is  also  found  at  the  end  of  some  Nouns 
which  thereby  become  the  Elliptical  Verbs  we  have  mentioned,  with  the 
radical  Avord  Phil,  which  means  what  relates  to  friendship  and  love,  and 
the  Verb  ei-tni,  to  be,  which  form  the  last  syllables,  they  said, 

Phil-e/,  he  loves. 

Phil-C2>,  thou  lovest. 

Phil-eo,  I  love. 

Phil-eouj/,  they  love. 

Phil-efo,  you  love. 

Y\\\\-Gineny  we  love. 

The  same  custom  prevails  in  the  Persian  language,  the  Verb  to  be,  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  their  Nouns  to  make  so  many  Verbs  of  them. 

Pak  which  among  them  nieans  pitre,  purity,  blended  to  the  Verb  to  be 
means  to  be  pure. 

EXAMPLE. 

'Pd.k-asty     he  is  ^ure. 
Pak-az,      thou  art  pure. 
Vzk-am,    I  am  piure. 

I  shall  conclude  this  article  by  observing  that  Nouns,  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, with  the  help  of  Pronouns  and  certain  general  signs  to  denote  the 
tenses  become  Verbs  without  experiencing  any  change  in  their  termination 
except  in  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  Indicative,  and  se- 
cond person  singular  of  the  Present  anterior,  the  finals  of  v»hich  show  in, 
est,  s,  the  Verb  to  be,  which,  it  seems,  could  riot  be  banished  from  the 


76  PHILOSOPHY 

second  and  third  person  singular  of  the  Indicative,  in  which  it  made'  k» 
first  appearance  in  the  origin  of  language. 

At  sonrie  future  period  I  shall  subnait  to  the  public  my  conjectures  hovr 
the  English  language  came  to  have  general  sigris  to  express  the  various 
tenses  of  the  Verb,  instead  of  using  for  that  purpose  terminations  after  the 
manner  of  most  other  languages. 


CONVERSATION  IX.f 

OW  MOODS  AKD  TEJ^'SES. 


Scholar. 

Having  much  to  ask  of  you  concerning  your  system  of 
conjugation  exemplified  in  porter^  please  to  let  me  know^ 
first,  what  you  mean  by  the  Infinitive  Mood? 
Master. 

The  infinitive  simply  expresses  the  action  in  itself^ 
without  any  reference  to  person  and  number;  from  its  in- 
dependence in  that  respect,  it  is  called  infinitive^  which 
means  unlimitted  orunbounded.  Another  property,  which, 
in  a  conspicuous  manner,  distinguishes  it  from  the  other 
moods,  is,  that  it  admits  of  some  Prepositions  before  it 
like  the  Nouns,  it  even  like  them  serves  as  a  subject  or 
object  in  the  phrase,  while  some  infinitives,  (in  French) 
will  admit  the  Article  before  them,  which  we  have  before 
observed  in  treating  of  them. 

Scholar. 

What  is  the  Participle  ? 

Master. 

The  Participle^  which  some  grammarians  have  made  a 
distinct  mood  from  the  infinitive^  takes  its  name  from 
the  double  part  it  performs,  first,  by  expressing  an  ac- 
tion, like  the  Verb  ;  and,  secondly,  by  possessing,  like 
an  Adjective,  the  property  of  being  affirmed  of  a  subject. 
Scholar. 

What  is  the  Indicative  7 


t  This  Conversation  is  to  be  attended  to  as  soon  as  the  conjugation  of 
^wtar  be  committed  to  memory. 


OF  LANGUAGE-  rr 

Master. 

A  mood,  the  tenses  of  which  directly  express  the  exist- 
ence of  an  action  at  the  different  times  at  which  it  took 
place,  without  forming  any  contrast  to  that  of  another ; 
the  indicative,  with  which  other  moods  can  seldom  dis- 
pense, thus  becomes  independent  of  them.  It  is  conspi- 
cuous in  affirmation  or  narrative^  and  hence  proceeds  the 
names  of  affirmative  or  declarative^  which  some  gi*amma- 
rians  have  judiciously  conferred  on  it. 
Scholar. 

I  must  confess,  I  have  been  much  astonished  to  see 
the  denominations  Present  anterior  ;  Present  anterior-pe- 
riodical;  Present  posterior^  &c.  substituted  instead  of  the 
ancient  and,  established  terms,  Imperfect^  Perfect^  Pre- 
terite^  &c.  and  I  am  apprehensive  that  this  innovation, 
unless  supported  by  decisive  argument,  will  be  strenu- 
ously oppugned  by  the  disapprobation,  if  not  opposition 
of  tutors  in  general. 

Master. 

After  long  and  serious  deliberation  I  have  adopted 
the  system  of  the  celebrated  and  profound  grammarian 
Beauzee^  from  a  full  conviction  of  its  truth  and  simplici- 
ty ;  but  by  no  means,  through  the  spirit  of  innovation  or 
the  pride  of  singularity,  so  baneful  to  the  advancement 
of  science. 

By  an  explication  of  the  use  of  the  tenses,  you  will  be 
competent  to  judge  and  decide,  whether  my  denomina- 
tions are  properly  adapted  to  them,  and  whether  they  are 
calculated  to  impress  the  scholar  with  so  clear  an  idea  of 
their  use  in  language  as  may  demand  a  preference  to  for- 
mer terms. 

I  call  the  old  Imperfect,  Present  anterior ;  first,  be- 
cause it  expresses  an  xAt-dioi presence  ;  and,  secondly,  be- 
cause it  strikes  the  mind  with  a  clear  notion  of  anteriority 
(or  past)  ;  but  as  the  idea  of  presence  is  the  principaly 
while  that  of  anteriority  is  subordinate,  we  term  the  tense 
^Y\\\\2iY\\Y  present  (which  seemed  a  paradox  to  you)  and 
then  anterior.  An  example  in  a  familiar  phrase,  will,  I 
am  confident,  convince  you  of  the  propriety  of  this  deno^ 
mination.  Example,  Je  portais  vos  livres^  lorsque  voiis 
Tri'avez  rencontre ;  I  was  carrying  your  books  when  you 
met  with  me.  My  meaning  is  not  to  inform  you  that  the 
action  of  carrying  was  elapsed  ;  but  that  it  was  on  a  level 


76  PHILOSOPHY 

or  coexisted  with  the  time  of  meeting  with  you,  which 
makes  it  present  with  that  time.  The  idea  of  anteriority 
for  past)  afterwards  arises  from  comparing  the  circum- 
stance with  the  present  utterance  of  speech^  which  is  a  fix- 
ed point,  that  determines  the  different  periods  of  time 
in  our  social  communications. 

The  term  Present  anterior  is  therefore  so  expressive 
that  it  must  certainly  be  adopted  by  those  who  would  ex- 
press themselves  with  precision  and  conceive  accurate 
notions  of  the  objects  of  their  studies. 

The  addition  of  periodical  to  Present  anterior^  to  de- 
note the  next  tense,  is  also  founded  in  reason,  and  de- 
clarative of  the  nice  distinction  between  the  two  tenses, 
which,  being  synonymous,  in  some  respect,  as  they  im- 
ply both  ideas  of  presence  and  anteriority^  learners  are 
apt  to  confound.  It  is  now  my  business  to  explain  its 
signification. 

Periodical  is  derived  from  period^  a  portion  of  time  cir* 
cumscrihed  and  determinate  ;  for  instance,  when  I  say,  "Je 
portai  hier  votre  lettre  a  la  posts ;  I  carried  your  letter 
yesterday  to  the  post-office  ;  the  action  of  carrying  is 
transacted  within  the  bounds  of  yesterday^  a  space  oijix^ 
^^time,  and  is  present  with  respect  to  that  day,  which  I 
mean  to  express  :  Therefore  the  term  periodical  joined 
to  the  two  others,  fully  explaining  the  meaning  of  this 
tense,  recommends  the  adoption  thereof.  I  must  ob- 
serve, however,  that  you  could  not  say,  Je  portai  ce  ma^ 
tin,  &c.  I  carried  this  morning,  &c.  jf^ai  porte  ce  matin 
must  be  used  ;  as  this  tense  is  devoted  to  the  relation  of 
transactions,  which  happened  within  such  periods  as  yeS" 
terday,  the  -meek  past,  the  month  past,  &c. 

As  I  have  now  maintained  the  propriety  of  using  the 
Present  anterior,  &c.  in  place  of  the  Imperfect  and  Pre* 
terite  ;  I  have  to  prove  that  the  Future  is  well  termed  the 
Present  posterior ;  for  instance,  ^e  porterai  demain  vos 
effets  u  hord  du  paquebot ;  I  will  carry  your  goods  to-mor* 
row  on  board  the  packet:  This  manner  of  expression, 
Je  porterai  demain,  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  Pre^ 
sent  tense  relative  to  a  time  posterior  to  the  immediate  ut' 
terance  of  speech,  as  it  is  the  equivalent  of  ^e/>or^e  demaiuy 
which  is  ceYt2Lin\y  2i  Present  posterior  :  J e  porterai  demain 
which  fills  the  place  of  Je  porte  demain,  is,  therefore, 
justly  denominated  a  Present  posterior  and  not  a  Future. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  79 

By  comparing  my  names  of  the  above  tenses  (which 
convey  to  the  mind  an  immediate  idea  of  their  proper  ap- 
plication) with  the  hackneyed  w^ords  Imperfect^  Preterite^ 
&c.  you  must  conceive  that  the  term  Imperfect  signifies 
in  the  English  language,  that  the  tense,  thus  called,  is 
deficient^  though  in  a  logical  sense,  it  is  as  complete  as 
any  other.  The  Preterite^  denoting  the  /ja^^,  to  those 
acquainted  with  the  Greek,  is  a  denomination  very  inade- 
quate to  its  object. 

As  grammarians  had  chosen  an  Imperfect^  they  deem- 
ed it  proper  to  introduce  a  Perfect^  a  more  absurd  term 
than  the  other,  as  it  implies  an  idea  of  perfection,  which 
good  sense  and  experience  informs  us,  is  not  even  ap- 
plicable to  the  first  situation  amidst  human  affairs. 

But,  what  romantic  brain  could  invent  the  Pluperfect 
tense^  which  seems  to  soar  above  perfection  itself  there- 
by vying  in  the  imagination  with  the  Creator  of  infinite 
worlds ! !  !-|* 

Scholar. 

Are  the  Present  anterior-periodical^  and  Pi'esent  poste- 
rior ^  always  looked  upon  as  Presents  ? 
Master. 

Yes  ;  when  compared  with  the  fixed  time  expressed  in 
the  respective  sentences  above  mentioned ;  but  deprived 
thereof,  they  can  no  longer  be  considered  present;  if 
compared  then  with  the  present  utterance  of  speech  only, 
which  embraces  them  as  anterior^  they  become /7«7.9^  tenses^ 
and  simply  remain  so  ;  on  this  account  you  may  there- 
fore with  propriety  use  (as  no  determinate  period  is  men- 
tioned) either  of  the  following  phrases  : 

Les  "M-c^tcirxs  portaient  des  perruques."^ 

Les  Medecins/jorfirrenf  des  perruques  C  Physicians  twore  wigs. 

Les  Mcdecins  ont  port e  des  perruques.  3 

I  must  observe  to  you  that  by  depriving  also  the  Pre- 
sent  posterior  of  the  determinate  period,  it  becomes  a 
real  Future. 


t  Condillac  expresses  his  opinion  of  the  old  terms  for  the  tenses  of  Verbs 
jn  the  following  manner :  •*  For  my  part,  I  confess  I  could  never  under- 
"  stand  what  they  (grammarians)  mean  by  Imperfect,  Perfect^  Pluperfect^ 
*'  Sec.  I  understand  better  what  they  mean  by  Simple  and  Compound.  These 
*'  names  denote,  at  least,  the  forms  which  the  Verb  assumes  when  past ; 
"  but  they  do  not  express  any  of  the  accessories  which  the  former  awake. 
**  It  is,  however,  after  these  accessories  the  tenses  should  have  been  nam- 
'f  ed  j"  it  is  what  we  have  endeavoured  to  do. 


60  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 

I  begin  to  understand  the  nervous  simplicity  of  your 
system  and  already  behold  the  strong  light  you  have 
thrown  on  the  use  of  the  tenses  you  mentioned,  by  the 
introduction  of  these  terms  anterior^  anterior  per iodicaly 
&c.  which  you  have  so  fitly  adapted  to  the  subject.  May 
these  terms,  however,  be  with  equal  propriety  applied  to 
the  Past  tenses  ? 

Master. 

Equally;  which  must  finally  reconcile  you  to  our  sys- 
tem, as  well  as  those  who  may  at  first  oppose  it,  on  ac- 
count of  its  seeming  so  novel  and  extraordinary.  I  shall 
have  recourse  to  examples  to  satisfy  you  in  this  respect. 

When  you  say  to  me,  for  instance,  y^avais  ecrit  lors- 
que  vous  etes  entre ;  I  had  written  when  you  came  in  : 
what  idea  do  you  want  to  convey  to  me  ?  Is  it  not  that 
your  action  of  writing  was  elapsed  when  my  coming  took 
place  ?  This  coming  of  mine  is  anterior  to  your  present 
utterance  of  speech  to  me,  and  of  course  past ;  It  is,  there- 
fore, properly  denominated,  as  it  expresses  a  double  view 
of  the  mind,  a  Past  anterior. 

The  Past  anterior-periodical  is  much  the  same  with 
the  above,  except  it  is  periodical;  that  is  to  say,  it  ex- 
presses the  existence  of  an  action  anterior  to  another  ac- 
tion transacted  in  a  period  entirely  elapsed ;  it  is  exem- 
plified in  the  following  sentence  :  y  eus  ecrit  hier  a  midi; 
I  had  written  yesterday  at  twelve  o'clock. 

With  regard  to  the  Past  posteriory  when  you  say,  JVw- 
rai  fait  mes  affaires  quand  vous  viendrez;  I  shall  have  done 
my  business  when  you  come :  your  intention  is  to  show 
that  the  action  of  doing  your  business  is  past  with  regard 
to  my  coming,  which  is  to  take  place  ;  it  is,  therefore, 
with  propriety  denominated  a  Past  posterior. 
Scholar. 

Pray,  what  is  the  difference  hetw&tnje  porterai(\yh.en 
without  the  determinate  period  it  becomes  a  Future  J  ^  and 
je  dois  porter y  which  seems  invariably  a  Future  in  your 
conjugation. 

Master. 

The  difference  is  this  ;  je  porter ai^  indicates  a  strong 
resolution  of  performing  the  action  expressed  by  the 
Verb  ;  je  dois  porter^  signifies  a  free  and  duteous  inten- 
tion of  the  performance  thereof:  The  former  in  a  strict 


OF  LANGUAGE.  St 

sense  corresponds  with  the  words  shall  carry  ;  and  the 
latter  with  the  terms  will  carry* 
Scholar. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  Imperative^  which,  I  think, 
you  have  curtailed ;  as  it  is  conjugated  v/ith  more  persons 
in  those  grammars  I  have  perused  than  you  introduce? 
Master. 

Man  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  his  command^  di- 
rection^ or  authority^  which  he  could  not  do  with  the 
help  of  the  Indicative^  through  necessity  devised  a  new 
mood  (which  is  called  the  Imperative  J  formed  from  the 
Indicative^  by  despoiling  its  present  tense  oi  xho^  Pronouns. 
Thus  the  Imperative  was  produced,  a  term  energetically 
expressive  of  its  use,  and  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
imperOf  I  command.  You  perceive  it  has  no  other  per- 
sons than  those  I  have  already  mentioned,  as  no  one,,  in 
a  rigid  point  of  view,  can  command  or  give  orders  to 
himself.  With  respect  to  a  third  person,  it  is  evident  that 
no  verbal  intercourse  can  be  held  with  an  absentee. 

'  The  persons,,  grammarians  have  so  liberally  bestowed 
on  this  mood,  belong  to  the  Subjunctive^  as  the  Conjunc- 
tion que  which  is  inseparable  therefrom,  fully  evinces. 
Scholar. 

What  is  the  Conditional  mood  ? 
Master. 

It  denotes  the  performance  of  an  action  (either  pre- 
sent or  future)  when  circumstances  favour  the  actor  or 
actors  ;  hence  it  is  called  Conditional  and  essentially  dif- 
fers from  the  Indicative  and  Imperative  moods,  which  en- 
tirely reject  those  circumstances  or  conditions. 
Scholar. 

What  do  you  signify  by  the  Subjunctive  ? 
Master. 

A  mood  always  dependent  on  the  Indicative  and  dis- 
tinguished from  it  (in  French)  by  the  Conjunction  que^ 
which  connects  it  therewith  and  from  which  the  name  of 
Subjunctive  is  derived:  Example,  Je  desire  que  vous 
portiez  promptement  ce  billet;  I  wish  that  you  may  car' 
ry  this  note  expeditiously.  You  must  observe  that 
such  Verbs  as  express  the  feelings  of  the  heart  or  affeC' 
tions  of  the  soul,  are  the  only  ones^  which,  preceded  by 
the  Indicative,,  may  assume  the  Subjunctive  form.  The 
others  following  que  and  the  Indicative  will  not  admit  of  it. 

vol.  II.  M 


82 


PHILOSOPHY 


EXAMPLE. 

J*  apprends  avec  plaisir  que  c'est  I  learn  with  satisfaction  that  it  is  he 
lui  qui  a  obtenu  cet  emploi  lu-  who  has  obtained  this  lucrative 
cratif.  employment. 

Grammarians  often  mistake  the  Conditional  for  the  Sub' 
junctive:  as  a  proof  of  their  error,  the  latter  is  an  entire 
dependant  on  the  Indicative^  and  by  no  means  adequate 
to  those  functions,  which  the  former  (free  from  the  in- 
cumbrance of  any  other  mood)  can,  with  propriety,  per- 
form. 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE 

AUXILIARY  VERB  AVOIR,  TO  HAVE. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present.  Past. 

To  have,  Avoir*  \  To  have  had,  Avoir  eiu 


Present. 
Having,  Ayant. 


PARTICIPLES. 


I  Had,'  Eu, 


Past. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


PRESENT. 


Singular. 
I  have,  J'  at, 
thou  hast,  tu  as, 
he  or -she  has,  il  ou  elle  a, 
one,  any  body,  Sec.  has,  on  a. 


Plural. 

We  have,  JVous  avons, 
you,  oj?  ye  have,  vous  avez, 
they  have,  ils  cm^Mes  out, 
we,  people,  they,  &c.  have,  on  a. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


I  had,  J'  avals, 

thou  hadst,  tu  avais, 

he  or  <^e  had,  il  o^cn  avail. 


We  had,  Kous  arvions, 
you  or  ye  had,  vous  aviez, 
they  had,  ils  (mrtles  avaient. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


I  had,  J'  eus, 

thou  hadst,  tu  eus, 

he  or-oqe  had,  il  ou  on  eut. 


We  had,  J^ous  eumes, 
you  w-y«  had,  vous  tutes, 
they  had,  ils  ou'vUes  eurent. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 
PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


83 


I  shall  (or  wiU) 'I 
thou  shalt  Vhave. 

he  or  one  shall  J 


We  shall 

you  or  ye  shall  \  have. 

they  shall 


'} 


I  have  "J 

thou  hast         \  had. 
he  or  one  has  J 


We  have  1 
you  have  I  had. 
they  have  J 


Singular. 

J'  aurau 
tu  auras, 
il  ou  on  aura. 

Plural. 

J^oua  aurons. 

V0U8  aurez, 

ila  ou  dies  auront. 


PAST. 

Singular. 
J'  ai 


tu  as 

il  ou  on  a 


} 


Plural. 

Nous  ttvons 
vous  avez 
Us  ou  dies  ont 


1 


€U. 


I  had 

thou  hadst 
he  or  one  had 


} 


had. 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 

Singular. 

y  avals 
tu  avais 
il  ou  on  avait 


} 


eu. 


We  had 
you  had 
they  had 


} 


had. 


Plural. 

JVbus  avians 

vous  aviez 

Us  ou  elles  avaient 


] 


PAST  ANTERIOR   PERIODICAL. 


I  had 
thou  hadst 
he  or  one  had 


} 


had. 


Singular. 
J*  eus 
tu  ev^ 
il  ou  on  cut 


] 


We  had  1 

you  had  thad. 
they  had  J 


Plural. 

M)U8  eHmes 

vous  eUtes 

Us  ou  elles  eurent 


] 


eu> 


eu. 


54. 


PHILOSOPHY 


PAST   POSTERIOR. 


I  shall  (or  will)"] 

thou  shalt  i-  have  had 

he  or  one  shall  J 


We  shall  1 

you  shall    >  have  had. 

they  shall  J 


Singular. 

J^  aurai 
tu  auras, 
il  ou  on  aura 


\eu. 


Plural. 

J\fous  aurons 

vous  aurez 

Us  ou  elles  aurant 


} 


PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 


I  have  "J 

thou  hast  >just  had. 

he  or  one  has  J 


We  have  1 

you  have  I  just  had. 

they  have  J 


Singular 

Je  viens 
tu  viens 
il  ou  on 


•  I 

vient  J 


d'avoir. 


Plural. 

A'ous  venons 

vous  venez 

Us  ou  elles  viennent 

FUTURE. 


I 


(Tavoir* 


I  am 

thou  art 
he  or  one 


J 


to  have. 


Singular, 

Je  (Lois'* 

tu  dois 

il  ou  on  doit  J 


I 


We  are 
you  are 
they  ar 


■} 


Plural. 


to  have. 


J^ous  devons  1 

vous  devez  K  avoir* 

Us  ou  elles  doivent  j 


INSTANT    FUTURE. 


1 


I  am  going 

thou  art  going        ^to  have 

he  or  one  is  going  J 


Singular. 

Je  vais*  "^ 

tu  vas  ^avoir. 

il  ou  on  va  J 


*  The  Verbs  Venir,  Devcir,  Jller,  have  other  tenses  used  as  auxiliaries. 
They  will  be  fcund  at  the  end  of  cur  conjugations,  as  we  would  not,  at  pre- 
sent, increase  the  number  of  tenses,  by  inserting  those  which,  though  use- 
ful to  be  learned,  can  be  at  first  dispensed  with. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


8§ 


We  are  going  "^ 

you  are  going  J>to  have, 

they  are  goingj 


Pi-URAL. 

JVous  allons       "^ 

vous  allez  p>ai;ofr. 

Us  ou  elles  vontj 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Have  (thou)  ylye» 
Have  Ayez, 

Let  us  have  Ayons. 

CONDITIONAL  MOOD. 


PRESENT. 

Singular. 
I  should,  could,  would  or  might  "j 
thou  shouldst  >  have, 

he  or  one  should  J 


We  should  1 

you  should    J.  have. 

they  should  J 


J'  aurats, 
tu  aurais. 
il  ou  on  aurait. 


Plural. 

J^ous  aurions, 

vous  auriez. 

Us  ou  dies  auraient, 

PAST. 


I  should,  Sec.        "J 

thou  shouldst       thave  had. 

he  or  one  should  J 


We  should"! 

you  should  ^have  had. 

they  should  J 


NGULAR. 

J*  aurais 
tu  aurais 
il  ou  on  aurait 


\ 


Plural. 

J^foua  aurions 

vous  auriez 

Us  ou  elles  auraie?it 


I 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


That  I  may 
that  thou  mayest 
that  he  or  one  mav 


,} 


PRESENT. 
Singular. 


have. 


Que  j'  aie. 

que  tu  aies. 

qu  il  ou  qu*  on  ait 


] 


That  \ve  may  ") 

that  you  may    yhave. 


that 


they  may  J 


have. 


Plural. 

Que  nous  ayons, 

que  vous  ayez» 

qu'  Us  ou  qu'  elks  aient. 


86 


PHILOSOPHY 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


That  I  might 

that  thou  mightest      ^have 

that  he  or  one  might 


} 


Singular. 

Que/  eusse. 

que  tu  eusaes* 

qu'  il  ou  qu'  on  eitt. 


That  we  might  "j 

^i^a?  you  mip^ht   K  have. 

M«^  they  might  J 


PLUnAL. 

Que  nous  eussions. 

que  vous  eiissiez. 

qu*  //s  ou  qu*  elles  eussent. 


T/iat  I  may  1 

^Aar  thou  mayest    thave  had. 

that  he  or  one  may  J 


PAST. 

Singular. 

Que  f  ate 


que  tic  aies 

qu'  zV  ou  qu'  on  ait 


] 


That  we  may  'J 

that  you  may    Vhave  had 

that  they  may  J 


Plural. 

Que  nous  ayons 
que  vous  ayez 


qu'  f/s  ou  qu'  elles  aient 
PAST  ANTERIOR. 


} 


eu» 


That  I  might 
that  thou  mightst 
^/!«^  he  or  one  might 


11 
II 


That  we  might  1 

^Aa?  you  might   thave  had 

that  they  might  J 


Singular. 

Que/  eM55e 

que  tu  eusses 

qu*  //  ou  qu'  on  cut 

Plural. 

T  Que  nous  eussions 


*eu. 


que  vous  eussiez 

qu'  //«  ou  qu'  elles  eussent 


1 


A  VERB  CONJUGATED  NEGATIVELY, 

EXEMPLIFIED  IN  AVOIR. 

WHEN  a  Verb  is  used  negatively^  ne  (or  n*  before  a 
vowel)  is  placed  before  it,  and  is  immediately  succeeded 
by  one  or  other  of  the  following  words  complementary  to 
the  negation,  viz.  pas  or  pointy  rien^  jamais^  personnCy 


OF  LANGUAGE.  87 

plus^  which  with  ncy  answer,  in  English,  to  the  words 
not^  nothings  never^  nobody^  no  more  or  no  longer.  I  must 
observe  to  you,  that  if  no  is  followed,  in  English,  by  a 
Substantive,  it  is  rendered,  in  French,  by  pas  or  pomt 
immediately  followed  by  the  word  afe.-— Example, 

I  have  no  stockings,  Je  w'  ai  fiaa  ou  fioint  de  bas. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.  Past. 

jV*'  avoir  pas 


{: 


Not  to  havc-^  ou, 

ne  fias  avoir. 


Not  to  have  had. 


A*'  avoir 
Jias  eu. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Present,  Past. 

Not  having.     A*'  ayant  fiaa. 


Not  having  had.  \      ^  ^ 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Singular. 
I  have  not,  Je  n*  ai  pas, 
thou  hast  not,  tu  n'  as  pas, 
he  or  she  has  not,  il  ou  die  n*  a  pas, 
one,  any  body.  Sec.  has  not,  on  n'  a  pas. 

Plural. 
We  have  not,  J^oua  n*  avons  pas. 
you  have  not,  vou  n'  avez  pas, 
they  have  not,  ils  ou  elles  n'  ont  pas, 
we,  people,  they,  £cc.  have  not,  mi  n'  a  pas, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SiXGULAR. 

I  had  not,  Je  n'  avais  pas 

thou  hadst  not,  tu  n*  avais  pas, 

he  or  she  had  not,  il  ou  elle  n'  avait  pas. 

Plural. 

We  had  not,  JVous  rV  avions  pas, 

you  had  not,  vous  n'  aviez  pas, 

they  had  not,  ils  ou  elks  rV  avaient  pas. 


B8 


PHILOSOPHY 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

Singular. 

I  had  not,  Je  n*  eics  fias. 

thou  hadst  not,  tu  rC  eus  pas. 

he  or  she  had  not,  il  ou  elle  w*  cut  pas. 

Plural. 

We  had  not,  Kous  rC  eumes  pas. 

you  had  not,  vous  n'  eutes  pas. 

they  had  not,  Us  ou  elles  rC  eurent  pas. 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


I  shall  or  will  "J 

thou  shalt  V-  not  have. 

he  or  she  shall  J 


We  shall  1 

you  shall    vnot  have. 

they  shall  J 


I  have  "j 

thou  hast         vnot  had. 

he  or  she  has  J 


We  have"] 

you  have  tnot  had. 

they  have  J 


Singular. 

Je  n\  aurai  pas, 
tu  n'  auras  pas, 
il  ou  elle  n*  aura  pas. 

Plural, 

JVous  n'  aurons  pas. 

vous  rC  aurez  pas. 

Us  ou  elles  n'  auront  pas, 

PAST. 

Singular. 


Je  71"  ai  pas      "J 

tu  n*  as  pas       L 
U  ou  elle  n'  a  J 


eu. 


Plural. 


JVous  n*  avons  pas 

vous  n'  avez  pas 

Us  ou  elles  n*  ont  pas 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 
Singular. 


I  had  T 

thou  hadst        >  not  had. 
he  or  she  had  j 


Je  n'  avals  pas 
tu  n'  avals  pas 
U  ou  elle  n'  avait  pas 


We  had  1 

you  had   Vnot  had. 

they  had  J 


Plural. 

JVous 
vous 
Us  ou 


n^  avians  pas  1 

n'  aviez  pas  > 

.  elles  n"  avaient  fms  J 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


89 


PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


I  had  1 

thou  hadst        t  not  had. 

he  or  she  had  J 


We  had  "J 

you  had    Wnot  had. 
they  had  J 


Singular. 

Je  rV  eus  fias 
tu  n'  eus  pas 
il  ou  die  rV  eut  fias 


} 


Plural. 


JVous  n'  eumes  jias 

vous  tV  eute^fias 

Us  ou  elles  n'  eurent  pas 


1 


PAST  POSTERIOR. 


I  shall  not  1 

thou  shalt  not  V  have  had. 

he  or  she  shall  not  j 


Singular. 

Je  n'  aural  pas 
tu  n'  auras  pas 
il  ou  elle  n'  aura  pas 


We  shall  not 
you  shall  not 
they  shall  not 


1 


Plural. 

J\/'ou8  n'  aurons  pas 


ha,ve  had. 


vous  n'  aurez  pas  >eu. 

Us  ou  elles  n*  auront  pas 


>eu, 

} 


PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 


I  have  not  "^ 

thou  hast  not         f>just  had. 

he  or  she  has  notj 


Singular. 

Je  ne  viens  pas 
tu  ne  viens  pas 
il  ou  elle  ne  vient  pa 


} 


d' avoir* 


Pn 


We  have  not  "^ 

you  have  not   p-just  had. 

they  have  notJ 


JVous  ne  venons  pas 

vous  ne  veiiez  pas 

ila  ou  elles  ne  viennent  pas 


FUTURE. 


I  am  not 
thou  art  not 
he  or  she  is  not 


y 


Singular. 


have. 


We  are  not"^ 
you  are  not   ^to  have, 
they  are  notJ 
VOL.  II. 


Je  ne  dois  pas 
tu  ne  dois  pas 
il  ou  elle  ne  doit  pas 


] 


Plural. 

JVous  ne  devons  pas 

vous  ne  devez  pas 

ils  ou  elles  ne  doivent  pas 


}i 


90 


PHILOSOPHY 


INSTANT  FUTURE. 


I  am  not  going 
thou  art  not  going 
he  or  she  is  not  going 


■1^ 

ingj     o 


Singular. 

Je  ne  vais  fias 

tu  ne  vas  pas  \.  avoir* 

il  ou  €lle  ne  va  pas\ 


I 


Plural. 


We  are  not  going  "] 

you  art  not  going    S-to  have. 

they  are  not  goingj 


JSTous  tC  allons  pas 

vous  n'  allez  pas 

Us  ou  elles  ne  vont  pa& 


] 


avoir* 


IMPERATIVE. 

Have  thou  not,  JV*'  aie  pas. 
Let  us  not  have,  A"'  ayons  pas. 
Have  not,  JV'  ayez  pas. 


CONDITIONAL. 


PRESENT. 


Singular. 


I  should,  would,  could  or'' 

might 
thou  should  st 
he  or  she  should 


We  should"] 

you  should  j-  not  have. 

they  should  J 


Je  n'  aurais  pas, 

tu  n'  aurais  pas, 

il  ou  die  n*  aurait  pas. 


Plural. 

JStous  n*  aurions  pas, 

vous  n'  auriez  pas. 

Us  ou  elle  w'  auraient  pas. 


PAST. 
Singular. 


I  should  not,  Sec    "^ 

thou  shouldst  not    Vhave  had. 

he  or  she  should  not  J 


Je  n'  aurais  pas  "j 

tu  n'  aurais  pas  L  ( 

//  ou  elle  n'  aurait  pas  J 


PLURAL. 


We  should  not! 

you  should  not  V-have  had. 

they  should  not  J 


Mjus  n'  aurions  pas 

vous  n'  auriez  pas  >.  en. 

Us  ou  elles  n'  auraient  pas 


} 


OF  LANGUAGE. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 


91 


PRESENT 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  may  not  ") 

that  thou  mayst  not      >  have 
that  he  or  she  may  not  J 


Que  je  n*  aie  pas,   ^ 

que  tu  rC  aie s  pas, 

qu'  il  ou  qu'  die  n*  ait  /las.. 


plura: 


That  we  may  notl 

that  you  may  not  V  have. 

that  they  may  not  J 


Que  nous  rV  ayons  pas, 

que  vous  n'  ayez  pas. 

qu'  ils  ou  qu'  elles  n'  aient  pas. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  might  not 

that  thou  mightst  not    j^have. 

that  he  or  she  might  not  J 


I 


Que  ^V  n'  eM55<?  /za*. 

que  ?u  n*  eusses  pas, 

qu'  zV  ou  qu  die  n'  cut  pas. 


PLURAL. 


That  we  might  notl 

that  you  might  not  >  have. 

tlmt  they  might  not  J 


Que  woz^s  n'  eussioj^s  pas, 

que  vows  n'  eussiez  pas, 

qu'  zTof  ou  qu*  elles  rC  eussent  pas^ 


PAST. 


That  I  may  not     ^ 

^/za^  thou  mayst  not  I  ,         ,     , 
*/  *  u  u  >have  had. 

//«z;  he  or  she  may  ; 

not  J 


SINGULAR. 

Que  ^>  n'  fliV  /2«'5        "^ 

que  tu  n'  aies  pas        I 

qu'  il  OM  qu'  c/Ze  n'  azV  { 

paa  J 


cw. 


PLURAL. 


That  we  may  not  "J 

Ma^  you  may  not   K  have  had. 

that  they  may  not  J 


Que  nous  n'  ayons  pas    "^ 

que  vous  w*  av<?2r  pas         ( 

qu  lis  ou  qu  e//es  n'  ai£nt  [ 

pas  J 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  might  not      "^ 
itst 
might 


that  thou  mightst  not  I  ,  ,     , 

that  he  or  she  --i^^  J^^^^^^  ^^^'^• 


not 


Que  je  n*  eusse  pas       "^ 

que  tu  n'  eusses  pas        1 

qu'  il  ou  qu'  e/Ze  n'  eut  j 

//a*  J 


92 


PHILOSOPHY 


That  we  might  not 
that  you  might  not 
that  they  might  not 


PLURAL. 

Que  nous  n'  eussions pas^ 


►have  had. 


que  vous  n'  eussiez  pas  I 
qu' //«  ou  qu' e//es  n' cw«-  ( 
sent  pas  J 


A  VERB  CONJUGATED  INTERROGAriVELT, 

EXEMPLIFIED  IN  AVOIR, 

IN  order  to  conjugate  a  Verb  interrogatively^  we  must, 
as  in  English,  place  the  Pronoun  immediately  after  the 
Verb. 

EXAMPLE. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 

Have  I?  M-je? 

hast  thou  ?  as-tu  ? 

has  he  or  she  ?  a-t-il  ou  a-t-elle? 

has  one,  8cc.  ?  a-t-on  ? 


PLURAL. 

Have  we  ?  Avons-nous? 
have  you?  avez-vous? 
have  they  ?  ont-ils  ou  ont-elles  ? 
have  people,  we,  Sec.  ?  a-t-on? 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Had  we?  Avions-nous? 

had  you  ?  aviez-vous  ? 

had  they  ?  avaient  lis  ou  elles? 


Had  I?  Avais-je? 

hadst  thou?  avais-tu? 

had  he  or  she  ?  avait-il  ou  e/Zt?.^ 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


SINGULAR. 

Had  I?  Eus.je? 

hadst  thou?  eus-tu? 

had  he  or  she  ?  ew^-//  ou  die? 


PLURAL. 

Had  we  ?  Eumes-nous? 

had  you?  eutes-vous? 

had  they  ?  eurent-ils  ou  e//<?s  .^ 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


Shall  or  will  I 
shalt  thou 
shall  he  or  she 


SINGULAR. 


I 


have  ? 


Anrai-je  ? 
auras-tu  ? 
aura-t-il  ou  elle  ? 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


Shall  we 

shall  you  {-  have  ? 

shall  they 


}' 


PLURAL. 

Aurons-noiis  ? 
aurez-vous? 
auront-ils  ou  elles? 


Have  I 

hast  thou         }►  had  ? 

has  he  or  she 


] 


PAST. 

Singular. 
Ai-je 
as-tu 


a-t-il  ou  elle 


} 


Have  we  1 
have  you   >had? 
have  theyj 


Had  I  ^ 

hadstthou       ^had? 
had  he  or  she  J 


Had  we  ") 
had  you   >had? 
had  theyJ 


Plural. 

Avons-noiis 
aruez-vous 
ont'ils  ou  elks 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

SiNGULAK. 

Avais-je 
avais-tu 
avail-il  ou  elle 


} 


Plural. 

Avions-nous 
avieZ'Vous 
avaient-ils  ou  elles 


>eu. 
J 


Had  I  ^ 

hadst  thou       >had? 
had  he  or  she  J 


Had  we   1 

had  you    thad? 
had  they  J 


PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

Singular. 

Eu8-je  "^ 

eus-tu  ^eu  ? 

eut-il  ou  €lle_^ 

Plural. 

Eumes-nous  "^ 


eutes-voiis  y>€U? 

eurent-ils  ou  clles^ 


Shall  or  will  I 
shalt  thou 
shall  he  or  she  J 


\ 


PAST  POSTERIOR. 

Singular. 

Aur  ai-je 
have  had?  aur  as-tu  ^eu  ? 

aura-t-ilouellej 


I 


.94 


PHILOSOPm 


Shall  we   ") 

shall  you   i  have  had  ? 

shall  they  J 


Plural. 

Aurons-noua 
aurez-vous 
auront  Us  ou  elles 


} 


(?w 


PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Siin^gular. 


Have  I  just 
hast  thou  just 
has  he  or  she  just 


ihad? 


rtens-je 
vins-tu 
■uurit-il  ou  elk 


W'c 


Have  we  just  "J  , 
have  you  just    i-had? 
have  they  just  J 


Am  I  to  "1 

art  thou  to         >  have  ? 
is  he  or  she  to  J 


Plural. 

^^enons-nous 
vcnez-Dous 
viemienc-ils  ou  elles 

FUTURE. 
Singular. 

Dois-je 

dois-tu 

doit-il  ou  die 


K-d' avoir? 


} 


avoir  ? 


Are  we  to 
are  you 
are  they 


*i} 


have  ? 


Plural. 

Devons-nous 

d'evez-vous  J-  avoir  ? 

doivent-ils  ou  elles  ^ 


\ 


INSTANT  FUTURE. 


Am  I  going  to 

art  thou  going  to 

is  he  or  she  going  to  J 


1 


Singular. 

Vals-je 
have  ?        vas-tu 

va-t'il  ou  elle 


Are  we  going  to  "J 

are  you  going  to   K-  have  ? 

are  they  going  to  J 


Plural. 

AUons-nous 

allez-v  ous  >  av  oir  ? 

vont-ils  ou  elles 


>  avoir 

} 


CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 


Singular. 
Should,  &c.  I  have  ?  Aiirais-je  ? 
shouldst  thou  have  ?  aurais  tu? 
should  he  or  she  have  ?  aurait- 
il  ou  elle  ? 


Plural. 
Should  we  have  ?  Aurions-nous? 
should  you  have?  auriez-vous? 
should  they  have  ?   auraient-ils 
ou  elles? 


OF. LANGUAGE.  95 

PAST. 


Singular 

Should  I  have 

shouldst  thou  have        ^had  ? 

should  he  or  she  l;iave 


Aurais-je  "^ 

aurais-tu  ^eu  ? 


Should  we  have  "^ 
should  you  have    >had  ? 
should  they  have  J 


aurait-il  ou  elle^ 

Plural. 

Aurions-nous 
auricz-vous 
auraient-ils  ou  elks 


J 


A  VERB  CONJUGATED 

INTERROGATIVELY  AND  NEGATIVELY, 

EXEMPLIFIED  IN  AVOIR, 

IN  order  to  conjugate  a  Verb  interrogatively  and  ne- 
gatively, ne  must  be  placed  before  the  Verb  conjugated 
interrogatively,  and  pas  or  point,  &c.  after  it. 

EXAMPLE. 

INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT. 

SlNCULAJR. 

Have  I  not?  N'  ui-jepaa? 

hast  thou  not  ?  n'  as-tu  pas? 

has  he  or  she  not  ?  n'  a-t-il  ou  elle  pas? 

has  one,  any  body,  &c.  not  ?  rC  a-t-on  pas.  ? 

Plural. 
Have  we  not  ?  N*  avons-nous  pas  ? 
have  you  not  ?  n*  avez-vous  pas  ? 
have  they  not  ?  n'  ont  Us  ou  elks  pas  ? 
have  we,  people,  they,  he.  not  ?  n'  a-t-on  pas  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

Singular. 
Had  I  not  ?  N*  avais-je  pas  ? 
hadst  thou  not  ?  n*  avais-tu  pas  ? 
had  he  or  she  not  ?  n'  avait-il  ou  die  pas  ? 


&6 


PHILOSOPHY 


Plural. 
Had  we  not  ?  JV'  avions-nous  fias  ? 
had  you  not  ?  n'  aviez-vous  fias  ? 
had  they  not  ?  n*  avaient-ils  ou  elles  pas  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

Singular, 
Had  I  not  ?  N'  eus-je  pas  ? 
hast  thou  not  ?  n'  eus-tu  pas  ? 
had  he  or  she  not  ?  w'  eut-il  ou  elle  pas  ? 

Plural. 
Had  we  not  ?  JV*  eumes-nous  pas  ? 
had  you  not  ?  n'  eutes-vous  pas  ? 
had  they  not  ?  n'  eurent-ils  ou  elles  pas  ? 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


Shall  or  will  I  not  ^ 

shalt  thou  not  ^have  ? 

shall  he  or  she  not  J 


A*'  aurai-je  pas  ? 
rV  auras-tu  pas  ? 
n'  aura-t'il  ou  elle 


Shall  we  not  "^ 
shall  you  not    ^have? 
shall  they  notj 


PLURAL. 

JV'  aurons-nous  pas  ? 

n'  aurez-~vous  pas  ? 

w*  auront-ils  ou  elles  pas  ? 


PAST. 


Have  I  not  ^ 

hast  thou  not        J>had  ? 
has  he  or  she  notJ 


singular. 

W  ai'je  pas  "^ 

n'  as-tu  pas  ^eu  ? 

n'  a-t-il  ou  elle  pas^ 


Have  we  not  "^ 
have  you  not   ^had  ? 
have  they  notJ 


plural. 

A*'  avons-nous  pas 


rV  avez-vous  pas  ^°.u? 

n'  ont'ils  ou  elles  pas^ 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 


Had  I  not  "^ 

hast  thou  not  J>had  ? 

had  he  or  she  notJ 


singular. 

JV'  avais-je  pas         ~\ 

7z'  avais-tu  pas  '^eu  f 

n'  avait-ilow  elk  pas ^ 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


97 


Had  we  not"^ 

had  you  not   ^had  ? 

had  they  notj 


PLURAL. 


JV'  avions-nous  fias  "^ 

w'  aviez-vous  jlias  ^eu? 

n'  avaient-ila  ou  elles  pas  J 


PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


Had  I  not 

hast  thou  not         V  had  ? 

had  he  or  she  not  J 


] 


Had  we  not 
had  you  not 
had  they  not 


} 


had? 


SINGULAR. 

JV'  eus-je  fias 

n'  eus-tu  fias 

n'  eut-il  OM  elle  fia. 


} 


PLURAL. 


A*'  eHmes-nous  fias 

tV  eUtcs-vQUs  pas 

w'  eurcnt-ils  ou  elles  pas 


Keu? 


PAST  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


Shall  or  will  I  notl 

shalt  thou  not        v  have  had  ? 

shall  he  or  she  not  J 


A**  aurai-je  pas 
n*  auras-tu  pas 
n*  aura-t-il  ou  elle  pas 


] 


Shall  we  not 
shall  you  not 
shall  they  not 


} 


PLURAL. 

JSf*  aurons-nous  pas 
have  had  ?  w'  aurez-vous  pas 

n*  auront-ils  ou  elles  pas 


euy 


] 


PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 


Have  I  not  just 
hast  thou  not  just 
has  he  or  she  not  just 


} 


SINGULAR. 


IJVe  viens-je  pas 
ne  viens-tupaa 
ne  -vient-il  ou  elle  pas 


Y 


Have  we  not  just  "| 
have  you  not  just    ^had? 
have  they  not  just  J 


PLURAL. 

IJ\re  venons-nous  pas 
ne  venez-vous  pas 
j  ne  viennent-ils  ou  elks 

FUTURE. 


ji 

/"■K 


Am  I  not  to 
art  thou  not 
is  he  or  she 

VOL.    II 


SINGULAR. 


to        >  have 
not  to  J 


JVe  dois-je  pas 
ne  dois-tu  pas 
7ie  doit-il  ou  elle  pas 


] 


avoir? 


98 


PHILOSOPHY 


PLURAL. 


Are  we  not  to 

are  you  not  to   \.  have  ? 


I 


are  they  not  to  J 


JVe  devons-nmis  fias 

ne  devez-vous  fias 

ne  doivent-ils  ou  elks  pas 


INSTANT  FUTURE. 


Am  I  not  going  to 
art  thou  not  going 
is  he  Of  she  not  going 


'0  |i 

igtoj  -^ 


SINGULAR. 

J^e  vais-je  pas 

ne  vas-tu  fias  L  avoir? 

ne  va-t-il  ou  elle  fias  J 


\ 


Are  we  not  going  to 
are  you  not  going 
are  they  not  going 


to  J 


PLURAL. 


IJV*  allons-nous  fias 
n'  allez-vous fias  ^^ avoir? 

ne  vont-ils  ou  elles  fias  J 


I 


CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 


Should  I  not  ") 

should  St  thou  not        5>have  ? 
should  he  or  she  notj 


Should  we  not  "^ 
should  you  not    >have  ? 
should  tliey  notJ 


SINGULAR. 

JV"  aurais-je fias? 

n*  aurais-tu  fias  ? 

n'  aurait-il  ou  elle  fias  ? 


PLURAL. 

A*'  aurions-nous  fias  ? 

7i'  auriez-vous  fias  ? 

n'  auraient-ils  ou  elles  fias  ? 


PAST. 


Should  I  not 

shouldst  thou  not     J>have  had 

should  he  or  she  notJ 


I 


SINGULAR. 

JV'  aurais-je  fias 

n^  aurais-tu  fias 

w'  aurait'il  ou  elle  fias 


} 


Should  we  not  "^ 

should  you  not    >hate  had  ? 

should  they  notJ 


PLURAL. 

A*'  aurions-nous  fias 

u'  auriez-vous  fias  \.  eu? 

n'  auraient-ils  ou  elles  fias 


} 


As  the  Verb  fo  he  is  rendered  by  avoir^  when  placed 
before  the  following  Adjectives,  which,  in  French,  be- 
come so  many  Substantives  having  the  import  or  mean- 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


99 


ing  thereof,  I  have  thought  it  proper  to  inform  you  of 
that  circumstance,  as  it  renders  those  expressions,  that 
frequently  occur,  idiomatical  with  respect  to  the  Eng- 
lish language ;  please,  therefore,  to  commit  them  to 
memory. 


EXAMPLES. 

'hungry, 

"faim. 

thirsty, 

soif. 

cold, 

froid. 

warm  or  hot, 

chaud. 

ashamed, 

honte. 

afraid, 

}i€ur. 

in  the  right. 

raison. 

in  the  wrong. 

tort. 

in  need, 

beaoin. 

so  good. 

la  honte. 

obliged. 

obligation. 

4) 

prudent. 

^ 

de  la  firudence. 

.0 

reserved. 

■1' 

de  la  resei-ve. 

e2 

grateful, 

de  la  reconnaissance. 

'wide. 

^de    longueur    (ou    de 
long). 

broad. 

de    largeur     (ou     dc 

-§ 

large). 

^    1 

deep. 

de  profondeur. 

G 

thick. 

rf'  efiaisseur. 

^ 

high. 

in  circumference. 

'~S 

de    hauteur    (ou    de 

haut). 
de  circoriference    (ou 
.      de  tour). 

twenty  years  old,  bcc.     | 

vingt  ans,  Istc. 

^gro 

vvn  old.                    J 

jvieil 

li. 

N.  B.  How  old  is  expressed  by  quel  age ;  as  how  old  are 
you  ?  quel  age  avez-vous  ? 


FAMILIAR  PHRASES  OJV  THE  ABOVE  IDIOMS. 


He  told  me  that  he  ivas  not 

hungry. 
For  my  part,  I  am  very  hun- 

grij. 
Give  me  some  drink,  for  I  a?n 

thirst  II. 


II  m'a  dit  qu'  il  n'  avait  pas 

faim. 
Quant  a  moi,  j'  ai  %ra.nd' fat m,^ 

Donnez-moi  a  boire,  car  j'  ai 
soif. 


100 


PHILOSOPHY 


If  you  stay  here,  you  will  be 

cold, 
I  now  begin  to  be  warm. 

You  will  be  warmer  in  the  par- 
lour. 

I  am  ashamed  to  tell  it  to  you. 

Why  should  you  be  ashamed P 

TiowX.  be  afraid  ;  speak. 

Y'ou  arc  in  the  right  to  act  thus. 

He  has  been  very  wrong  in  this 
business. 

When  you  are  in  need  of  mo- 
ney, apply  to  me. 

Be  so  good  as  to  make  me  a 
pen. 

I  will  be  much  obliged  to  you 
for  it. 

He  is  not  at  all  obliged  to  you. 

Be  prudent^  I  entreat  you. 

You  are  not  reserved  enough 
with  her. 

I  am  very  grateful  for  the  ser- 
vice you  have  rendered  me. 

This  carpet  is  seven  yards  long, 

I'he  river  is  more  than  half  a 

mile  broad. 
Is  the  well  thirty  feet  deep  ? 

How  thick  is  the  ice  ? 

It  is  already  five  inches  thick. 

They  say  that  this  steeple  is 
one  hundred  yards  high. 

Do  you  believe  he  is  six  feet 

high  ? 
England  is  above  four  hundred 

leagues  iii  circumference. 

How  old  are  you,  Miss  ? 

I  shall  be  eighteen  next  spring. 


Si  vous  restez  ici,  vous  aurez 
froid, 

Je  commence  a  present  a  avoir 
chaud, 

Vous  aurez  plus  chaud  dans  le 
salon. 

J'  ai  honte  de  vous  le  dire. 

Pourquoi  auriez-yon^  honte  ? 

^' ayez  ipas  Jieur  ;  parlez. 

Vous  avez  raison  d'  agir  ainsi. 

II  a  eu  grand  tort  dans  cette 
affaire. 

Quand  vous  aurez  besoin  d'  ar- 
gent, adressez-vous  a  moi. 

jlyez  la  bonte  de  me  tailler  une 
plume. 

Je  vous  en  aurai  de  grandes 
obligations. 

II  ne  vous  a  aucune  obligation, 

jiyez  de  la  prudence^  je  vous  en 
conjure. 

Vous  n'  a-vez  pas  assez  de  re- 
serve avec  elle. 

J'  ai  beaucoup  de  reconnaissance 
pour  le  service  que  vous  m' 
avez  rendu. 

Ce  tapis  a  six  verges  de  lon- 
gueur (ou  de  long). 

La  riviere  a  plus  d'un  demi 
mille  de  largeur  (ou  de  large). 

Le  puits  a-t-il  trente  pieds  de 
pf'ofondeur  ? 

Combien  la  glace  a-t-elle  of' 
epaisseur  ? 

Elle  a  deja.  cinq  pouces  d* 
epaisseur. 

On  dit  que  ce  clocher  a  cin- 
quante  toises  de  hauteur  (ou 
dehaut). 

Croyez-vous  qu'  il  cat  six  pieds 
de  haut  ? 

L'Angleterre  a  plus  de  quatre 
cents  lieues  de  circonference 
(ou  de  tour). 

Quel  age  «t^ez-vous.  Mademoi- 
selle ? 

V  aurai  dix-huit  ans  au  prin- 
tems  prochain. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  101 


I  thought  that  you  nvere  twen- 
ty, at  least. 

He  is  grown  very  old  since  his 
misfortunes. 


Je  croyais  que  vous  arviez  au 

ttioins  vingt  ans. 
II  a  beaucou  ^vieilli  depuis  ses 

malheurs. 


AVOIR  conjugated  in  the  Third  Person  Singular, through. 
its  Moods  and  Tenses,  with  the  Adverb  of  place,  T 
there,  exemplified. 

Note,  that  such  Verbs  as  are  conjugated  in  the  Third  Person  Singular 
are  caUed  IMPERSONALS. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT. 
There  is  or  there  are,  //  y  a. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
There  was  or  there  were,  II  y  avait. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
There  was  or  there  were,  //  y  cut. 
PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 
There  shall  or  there  will  be,  //  y  aura. 

PAST. 
There  has  or  there  have  been,  II  y  a  eu. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
There  had  been,  //  y  avait  eu. 

PAST  ANTERIOR   PERIODICAL. 
There  had  been,   //  y  tut  eu. 

PAST   POSTERIOR. 
There  shall  have  been,  //  y  aura  eu. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
There  has  just  been,  //  vient  d^  y  avoir. 


102  PHILOSOPHY 

FUTURE. 
There  is  or  there  are  to  be,  II  doit  y  avoir. 

INSTANT   FUTURE. 
There  is  or  there  are  going  to  be,  //  va  y  avoir* 
CONDITIONAL. 
PRESENT. 
There  should  be,  //  y  aurait. 

PAST. 
There  should  have  been,  //  y  aurait  eu, 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
That  there  may  be,    Qu*  il  y  ait. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
That  there  might  be,  Qu*  il  y  eUt. 

PAST. 
That  there  may  have  been,  Qu'  il  y  ait  eu. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  there  might  have  been,  Qu'  il  y  eUt  eu. 

NEGATIVELY. 
INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT. 
There  is  or  there  are  not,  // «'  y  a  fias. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
There  was  or  there  were  not,  //  n'  y  avait  /las. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
There  was  or  there  were  not,   //  n'  y  eut  pas. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  103 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 
There  shall  not  or  there  will  not  be,  //  n'  y  aurafias. 
PAST. 
There  has  not  or  there  have  not  been,  Iln^  y  a  fias  eu, 

PAST  ANTERIOR.. 
There  had  not  been,  //  n*  y  avait  fias  eu. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
There  had  not  been,  //  n'  y  eut  fias  eu. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
There  shall  not  have  been,  //  n*  y  aura  fias  eu. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

There  has  not  or  there  have  ndt  just  been,  //  ne  vientfias  cP  y 

[aruoir. 
FUTURE. 

There  is  or  there  are  not  to  be,  //  ne  doit  fias  y  avoir, 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 

There  is  not  or  there  are  not  going  to  be,  //  ne  va  fias  y  avoir. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 
There  should  not  be,  //  W  y  aurait  fias, 

PAST. 
There  should  not  have  been,  //  n'  y  aurait  fias  eu* 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
2'hat  there  may  not  be^  Qu'  //  n*  y  ait  fias. 


104  PHILOSOPHY 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
That  there  might  not  be,  Qu*  il  n*  y  eitt  fias. 

PAST. 
That  there  may  not  have  been,  Qu'  il  n*  y  ait  pas  eu. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  there  might  not  have  been,  Qu'  //  n*  y  cut  fias  eu, 

INTERROGATIVELY. 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 
Is  there  or  are  there  ?   Y  a-t-il? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
Was  there  or  were  there  ?   Y  avait-il  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
Was  there  or  were  there  ?    Y  eut-il? 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 
Shall  or  will  there  be  ?   Y  aura-t-il  ? 

PAST. 
Has  or  have  there  been  ?  Y  a-t-il  eu  ? 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
Had  there  been  ?    Y  avait-il  eu  ? 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
Had  there  been  ?    Y  eut-t-il  eu  ? 
PAST  POSTERIOR. 
Shall  there  have  been  ?    Y  aura-t-il  eu? 
PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 


Has  or  have  there  just  been?  Vient-il  d'  y  avoir ^ 


I 


OF  LANGUAGE.  105 

FUTURE. 
Is  there  or  are  there  to  be  ?  Doit 41  y  avoir? 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
Is  there  or  are  there  going  to  be  ?   Va-tM  y  avoir  ? 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 
Should  or  would  there  be  ?   Y  aurait-il  ? 

PAST. 
Should  there  have  been  ?  Y  auraii-il  eu  ? 

INTERROGATIVELY  Csf  NEGATIVELY. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Is  or  are  there  not  ?    J^'  y  a-tdl  fiaa  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

Was  or  were  there  not?  JV**  y  avait-il fias ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

Was  or  were  there  not?  A**  y  eut'ilfiaa? 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

i»       Shall  or  will  there  not  be  ?  A**  y  aura-tMfiaa  ? 

PAST. 

Has  there  or  have  there  not  been  ?  JV**  y  a-t'il fiaa  eu? 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

Had  there  not  been?  A**  y  avait-il  fiaa  eu? 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

Had  there  not  been  ?  -A/**  y  eutKl/ias  eu? 
VOL.  II.  P 


106  PHILOSOPHY 

PAST   POSTERIOR. 
Shall  there  not  have  been?  JV*  y  aura-t-il fias  eu? 
PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Has  there  or  have  there  not  just  been  ?  Ab  vient-ilfias  d*y  avoir? 
FUTURE. 
Is  there  or  are  there  not  to  be  ?  JVe  doit-ilfias  y  avoir? 
INSTANT   FUTURE. 
Is  there  or  are  there  not  going  to  be  ?  JsTe  va-t'ilfias  y  avoir? 
CONDITIONAL. 
PRESENT.    ^ 
Should  there  not  be?  A*'  z/  aurait-il pas ? 
PAST. 
Should  there  not  have  been?  A^'  y  aurait-il pas  eu? 

REMARK. 

SUCH  other  Verbs  as  are  conjugated  in  the  Third 
Person  Singular,  are  called  Impersonak ;  this  denomina- 
tion, which  was  intended  to  characterize  those  Verbs,  is  as 
improperly  applied  as  any  hitherto  used  by  grammarians ; 
for  the  word  Impersonal  means  what  is  without  person, 
which  is  not  the  case  with  respect  to  those  Verbs,  which 
admit  of  the  Pronoun  //,  and  this  word  represents  a  sub- 
ject understood,  which  must  exist ;  for  the  Verbs  have 
been  introduced  to  speak  of  the  existence  of  subjects  to- 
gether with  an  attribute.  When  we  say,  for  instance,  il 
plenty  it  rains  ;  it  represents  such  a  subject  as  heaven^  sky^ 
atmosphere^  weather^  Sec.  and  the  expression  it  rains ^  im- 
plies that  the  heavens  or  skies  issue  or  pour  rain.  Had 
the  Romans,  when  they  expressed  the  word  phiit^  been 
asked  what  rains  f  They  would  have  readily  replied 
Civdum.  The  term  Impersonal  can  only  be  given  to  the 
Infinitive  Mood^  which,  indeed,  is  without  person.  Wailly 
and  Beauzee  are,  therefore,  very  correct  in  denominating 
the  Infinitive  the  Impersonal  Mood. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


lo: 


FAMILIAR  PHRASES 

ON  IL   r  A. 

There  is,  there  are,  some,  many,  &c. 


Ts  there  a  stage  from  Phila- 
delphia to  Charleston  ? 

There  are  now  about  thirty-two 
millions  of  souls  in  France. 

There  are  but  nine  in  England. 

There  is  a  Gentleman  below 
who  wants  to  speak  to  you. 

There  ivas  a  great  fire  yester- 
day. 

Was  there  any  body  killed  ? 

No  ;  but  there  have  been  above 
twenty  people  hurt. 

There  ivill  be  a  grand  display 
of  fire-works  next  week. 

There  will  be  no  bonfire  on 
account  of  this  piece  of 
news. 

I  thought  there  would  have  been 
more  people. 

Some  people  harve  seen  him. 

Some  authors  firetend  that  Ho- 
mer was  born  at  Smyrna. 

Many  physicians  are   of  this 

opinion. 
Many  lose   our  esteem  on  a 

close  acquaintance. 
Voltaire  died  twenty-five  years 

ago. 
I  have  done  it  ten  years  ago. 
Where  were  you,  six  months 

ago? 
I   have  not  been  there   these 

five  years. 
She   arrived   there  six  weeks 

ago. 
How  far  is  it  from  Versailles 

to  Paris? 
It  is  four  leagues. 


Y  a-t-il  une  voiture  publique  de 
Philadelphie  a  Charleston  ? 

Ilya  main  tenant  environ  tren- 

te-deux  millions  d'  ames  en 

France. 
//  n'  z/  en  a  que  neuf  en  An- 

gleterre. 
II  y  a  Mii  Monsieur  en  bas  {ou 

la  bas)  qui  desire-  vous  par- 

ler. 
//  y  cut  hier  un  grand  incendie. 

Y  eut-il  quelqu'  un  de  tue  ? 
Non ;   mais  il  y  a  eu  plus  de 

vingt  personncs  de  blessees. 

//  y  aura  un  grand  feu  d'  ar- 
tifice la  semaine  prochaine. 

//  n'  y  aura  pas  de  fcux  de 
joie  pour  cette  nouvelle. 

Je  croyais  qu'  //  y  aurait  eu 
plus  de  monde. 

II  y  a  des  gens  qui  V  ont  vu. 

II  y  a  des  auteurs  qui  pretend- 
ent  qu'  Homere  naquit  a 
Smyrne. 

Ilya  bien  des  medccins  qui 
sont  de  cette  opinion. 

II  y  a  bien  des  gens  qui  per- 
dent  a  1'  examen. 

II  y  a  vingt-cinq  ans  que  Vol- 
taire est  mort. 

II  y  a  dix  ans  que  je  1'  ai  fait. 

Gu  etiez-vous,  il  y  a  six  mois  ? 

II  y  a  cinq  ans  que  je  n*  y  ai 

ete. 
II  y  a  six  semaines  qu'  elle  y 

est  arrivee. 
Combien  y  a-t-il  de  Versailles,  a 

Paris  ? 
II  y  a  quatre  lieues. 


108 


PHILOSOPHY 


How  far  is  Lisle  from  Paris  ? 

It  18  one   hundred    and  fifty 

miles. 
Jfoiv  many  regiments  are  there 

in  the  army  ? 
There  are  thirty-seven. 
How  many  houses  were  burnt? 

There  were  twelve  houses  burnt. 

How  long  have  you  been  in  A- 

merica  ? 
Nine  years. 
How  long  is  it  since   you  saw 

him  ? 
Three  months. 
How  long  httve  you  been  lenrn- 

ing  French? 
I  have   been  learning  it  these 

six  months. 


Combien  y  a-t-il  de  Lisle  a  Pa- 
ris ? 
II  y  a  cent  cinquante  milles. 

Combien  y  a-t-il  de  regimens 

dans  r  armee  ? 
II  y  en  a  trente-sept. 
Combien  y  a-t-il  eu  de  maisons 

de  brulees  ? 
II  y  a  eu  douze   maisons  de 

brulees. 
Combien  y  a-t-il  que  vous  etes 

en  Amerique  ? 
II  y  a  neuf  ans. 
Combien  y  a-t-il  que   vous  ne 

r  avez  vu  ? 
II  y  a  trois  mois. 
Combien  y  a-t-il  que  vous  ap- 

prenez  le  Fran9ais  ? 
II  y  a  six  mois  que  je  1'  ap- 

prends. 


Note,    there  is,    or  there  are,    may  be  rendered,    in 
French  by  Voila,  as  follows,  viz* 


There  is  a  fine  shop. 
There  are  handsome  ladies. 
There  are  fine  horses. 


Voila  une  belle  boutique. 
VtUd  de  belles  demoiselles. 
Voila  de  beaux  chevaux. 


CONJUGATION 


Abstract  and  Auxiliary  Verb  etre,  to  be. 
INFINITIVE. 


PRESENT. 

To  be,  etre. 


PAST. 

I  To  have  been,  avoir  ete. 


PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 


Being,  etant. 


I  Been,  ete. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


109 


INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 


I  am,  Je  mis. 

thou  art,  tu  es. 

he  or  she  is,  il  ou  eile  est. 

one,  any  body,  &c.  is,  on  est. 


PLURAL. 


We  are,  JVbus  sommes, 
you  are,  vous  etes. 
they  are,  //*  ou  elles  sont, 
we,  people,  they,  &c.  are,  on  est. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  was,  J'  etais. 

thou  wast,  tu  etais, 

he  or  she  was,  il  ou  elle  etait. 


We  were,  M)us  etions, 

you  were,  vous  6tiez, 

they  were,  ils  ou  elles  etaient. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


SINGULAR. 

I  was,  Je  fus, 

thou  was,  tu  Jus, 

he  or  she  was,  il  ou  elle  fut. 


PLURAL. 

We  were,  nous  f  {hues, 

you  were,  "uous  fUtes, 

they  were,  ils  ou  elles  furtnt. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 

I  shall  or  will  be,  Je  serai, 

thou  shalt  be,  tu  seras, 

he  or  she  shall  be,  il  ou  elle  sera. 


PLURAL. 

We  shall  be,  JVau^  serons, 
you  shall  be,  vous  serez. 
they  shall  be,  ils  ou  elles  seront. 


PAST. 


I  have 

thou  hast        Wbeen. 

he  or  she  has  J 


1 


SINGULAR. 

J'  ai 


tu  as 
il  ou  elle 


J 


etc. 


We  have"! 

you  have  s-been. 

they  have  J 


PLURAL. 

JSTous  avons 
vous  avez 
iU  ou  dies  out 


} 


St6. 


110 


PHILOSOPHY 


I  had 
thou  had  St 
he  or  she  had 


} 


been. 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

J*  avals 
tu  avam 
il  ou  elle  avail 


We  had] 

you  had   Vbeen. 

they  had  J 


} 


He, 


PLURAL. 

M)us  avians 

vous  aviez 

ils  ou  dies  avaient 


} 


ete. 


PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


I  had 
thou  hadst 
he  or  she  had 


} 


been. 


SINGULAR. 

J*  eus 
tu  eus 
il  ou  elle  eut 


} 


ete. 


We  had  1 

you  had   I  been, 
they  had  J 


PLURAL. 

Kous  envies 

vous  elites 

ils  ou  elles  eurent 


] 


etS, 


PAST  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 


I  shall  or  will  have  "J 
thou  shalt  have  I  been, 

he  or  she  shall  have  J 


J^  aurai 

tu  auras  ^ete. 

il  ou  elle  aura 


] 


We  shall  have 

you  shall  have    J- been. 

they  shall  hav 


e    [l 
vej 


PLURAL. 

JVbus  aurons  "J 

vous  aurez  y  et4, 

ils  ou  elles  auront  j 


PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
I  have  just  been,  Je  viens  d*  etre,  Sec. 

FUTURE. 

I  am  to  be  J  Je  dois  etre,  8cc. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 

I  am  going  t©  be,  Je  vais  etre,  &c. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


141 


IMPERATIVE. 

Be  (thou),  Soi8. 
let  us  be,  soyons, 
be,  aoyez. 


CONDITIONAL. 


PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should.  Sec.  be,  Je  serais. 
thou  shouldst  be,  tu  serais. 
he  or  she  should  be,  il  ou  eile 
serait» 


PLURAL. 


We  should  be,  JVous  serious, 
you  should  be,  vous  seriez. 
they  should  be,  lis  ou  elks  ser- 
aient. 


PAST. 
I  should  have  been,  7'  aurais  ete,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  may  1 

that  thou  mayest      Ibe^ 
that  he  or  she  may  J 


Queje  sois, 
que  tu  sois, 
qu'  il  ou  qu'  e//^  soit. 


That  we  may  "1 
[that  you  may   v  be. 
that  they  may  J 


Que  A^ous  soyons, 

que  t^ows  soyez. 

qu'  ?/«  ou  qu'  e//<?«  aoient. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  might  "J 

that  thou  mightst        ibe. 
that  he  or  she  might  J 


Que  jefusse, 
que  tu  fusses, 
qu'  zV  ou  qu*  elle  fiHt. 


That  we  might  "| 
that  you  might  Ibe. 
that  they  might  J 


PLURAL. 


Que  nous  fiissio7i^, 

que  vous  fussiez. 

qu'  27«  ou  qu'  elles  fuasent* 


J 12  PHILOSOPHY 

PAST. 
That  I  may  have  been,  Que  j*  ale  et6y  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  been,  Que  feusse  etSy  8cc. 


ETRE  conjugated  in  the  Third  Person  Singular,  through 
its  Tenses,  with  ce^  or  the  Pronoun  //,  as  c*  esty  il  est^ 
it  is. 

INDICATIVE, 

PRESENT. 

It  is,   C"  est  ou  il  est, 

PRESENT  anterior; 
It  was,  C  etait* 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

It  was,  Ce  fut. 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

It  shall  or  will  be,  Ce  sera, 

PAST. 

It  has  been,  g*a  ete, 

PAST  ANTERIOR.  * 

It  had  been,  g*  avait  ete, 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

It  had  been,  f '  cut  Ste, 


OF  LANGUAGE.  HS 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
It  shall  have  been,  9'  aura  ete. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
It  has  just  been,  Ce  ou  il  vient  d'  Stre, 

FUTURE. 
It  is  to  be,  Ce  doit  etre, 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
It  is  going  to  be,  Ce  ou  il  va  etre. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 
It  should  be,  Ce  aeraitf  &c. 

/  PAST. 

It  should  have  been,  9'  aurait  itS,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

That  it  may  be.  Que  ce  soit)  &c. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

That  it  may  have  been,  Que  9'  ait  etS,  &c. 

PAST. 
That  it  might  be.  Que  ce/Ht^  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

That  it  might  have  been,  Que  c'  eUt  Ste,  8cc. 
VOL.  H.  CL 


114  PHILOSOPHY 

NEGATIVELY. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 
It  is  not,  Ce  n'  est  fias  ou  U  n*  esi  fias* 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
It  was  not,  Ce  n'  etait  fias, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
It  was  not,   Ce  nefut  pas. 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 
It  shall  or  will  not  be,  Ce  ne  sera  fias» 

PAST. 
It  has  not  been,  Ce  n*  a  pas  etc. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
It  had  not  been,  Ce  n'  avait  pas  ete. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
It  had  not  been,  Ce  n'  eut  pas  ete. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 

It  shall  not  have  been,  Ce  «'  aura  pas  ete, 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

It  has  not  just  been,  Ce  ne  vient  pas  d'  ^tre, 

FUTURE. 

It  is  not  to  be,   Ce  ne  doit  pas  etre, 

INSTANT   FUTURE. 

It  is  not  going  to  be,  Ce  ne  va  pas  etre. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  115 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 
It  should  not  be,  Ce  ne  seratt  fias, 

PAST. 
It  should  not  have  been,  Ce  n'  aurait  jiaa  etc, 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
That  it  may  not  be,  Que  ce  ne  soit  fias,  Sec. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
That  it  may  not  have  been.  Que  ce  n'  ait  fias  ete^  &c. 

PAST. 
That  it  might  not  be.  Que  ce  nefut  /ms,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  it  might  not  have  been,  Que  ce  n'  eUt  pas  He^  &c. 

INTERROGATIVELY. 

Is  it,  Est-ce  ou  cst-il? 
was 'it,  etait  ce  ? 
was  it,  fut-ce  ? 
will  it  be,  sera-ce  ? 
would  it  be,  serait-ce  ? 

INTERROGATIVELY  £5?  NEGATIVELY. 

Is  it  not,  JV"  est  ce-Jias  ou  n'  est-il  fias? 
was  it  not,  n'  etait-ce  pas  ? 
was  it  not,  ne  fut-ce  fi  as? 
will  it  not  be  J  ne  sera-ce  pas? 
would  it  not  be,  ne  serait-ce  pas  ? 


116 


PHILOSOPHY 


FAMILIAR   PHRASES 

ON  C*  ESt,    IL  ESt,    It   IS. 


It  is  the  law  that  prescribes  it. 

It  is  they  who  have  done  it. 

/*  it  you  or  I  who  shall  speak 
first? 

Was  it  the  Phoenicians  who  in- 
vented navigation  ? 

Was  it  not  you  who  told  it  ? 

It  was  you  who  had  promised 
to  acquaint  me  with  the  news. 

It  was  his  friend  who  informed 
him  of  the  particulars  of  the 
engagement. 
Was  it  the  grenadiers  or  the 
light  troops  who  first  enter- 
ed the  city  ? 

It  has  been  the  custom  among 
the  ancients. 

They  say  that  it  had  been  the 
result. 

If  zr  had  been  another,  he  would 
have  miscarried  in  his  un- 
dertaking. 

Is  it  the"  fourth  regiment  that 
will  be  embarked  ? 

It  would  be  a  pity  to  dismiss 
him. 

It  would  have  been  a  great  loss 
to  the  country. 

It  is  working  too  much  indeed. 

It  was  acting  without  reflection. 

It  was  destroying  a  fine  work. 

One  must  be  very  barbarous  to 
insult  him  in  his  misfortunes. 

To  be  satisfied  with  one's  lot 

is  to  be  happy. 
It  is  not  enjoying  the  pleasures 

of  friendship  to  love  nobody. 

It  was  not  encouraging  him  to 
continue  to  speak  to  him  in 
this  manner. 


C'  est  la  loi  qui  1'  ordonne. 
Ce  sont  eux  qui  1'  ont  fait. 
Est-ce  vous  ou  moi  qui  parlerai 

le  premier  ? 
Sont-ce  les  Pheniciens  qui  ont 

invente  la  navigation  ? 
A*'  est-ce  pas  vous  qui  1'  avez 

dit? 
C"  etait  vous  qui  aviez  promis  de 

m'  apprendre  les  nouvelles. 
Ce  fut  son  ami  qui  lui  apprit 

les  details  du  combat. 

Fut-ce  les  grenadiers  ou  les 

troupes  legeres  qui  entrerent 

les  premiers  dans  la  ville  ? 
9'  a  etc  la  coutume  parmi  les 

anciens. 
On  dit  que  9'  avait  ete  le  re- 

sultat. 
Si  9'  avait  ete  un  autre,  il  au- 

rait  echoue  dans  son  entre- 

prise. 
Sera-ce  le  quatrieme  regiment 

qui  sera  embarque  ? 
Ce  serait  dommage  de  le  ren- 

voyer. 
9'  aurait  ete  une  grande  perte 

pour  la  patrie. 
C"  est  trop  travailler,  en  verite. 
C  etait  agir  sans  reflexion. 
C"    etait  detruire   un  bel  ou- 

vrage. 
C  est    etre  bien  barbare  que 

de  r  insulter  dans  ses  mal- 

heurs. 
C"  est  etre  heureux  que  d'  etre 

content  de  son  sort. 
Ce  71*  est  fias  goiiter  les  plai- 

sirs  de  1'  amitie  que   de   n* 

aimer  personne. 
Ce  w'  etait  pas  V  encourager  a 

continuer  que  de  lui  parler 

de  cette  maniere. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


iir 


It  is  with  you  as  with  him. 

It  is  with  the  son  as  with  the 
mother. 

It  is  with  poetry  as  with  paint- 
ing. 

It  is  with  the  diseases  of  the 
mind  as  with  those  of  the 
body. 


//  en  est  de  vous  comme  de  lui. 
//  en  est  du  fils  conime  de  la 

mere. 
//  en  est  de  la  poesie  comme 

de  la  peinture. 
//  en  est  des  maladies  de    1' 

esprit  comme  de  celles  du 

corps. 


FIRST  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  IN  ER, 
EXEMPLIFIED  IN  PORTER,    TO  CARRY. 

INFINITIVE. 


PRESENT. 

To  carry,  Porter, 


PAST. 

I  To  have  carried,  ^voir  fiortS* 


PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Carrying,  Portant.  \  Carried,  Porte. 

INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 


I  carry,  I  do  carry  or  I  am  carrying,*  Je  fiorte, 

thou  carriest,  &c.  tu  fiortcs, 

he  or  she  carries,  &c.  it  ou  eUe  fwrte, 

one,  any  body,  &;c.  carries,  on  jiorte. 


PLURAL. 


We  carry.  Sec.  JVbiis  fiortons, 

you  carry,  Sec.  vous  Jiortez. 

they  carry,  &c.  its  ou  ellts  fwrtent, 

we,  people,  they,  Sec.  carry,  on  /lorte. 


*  The  scholar  will  observe  that  the  French  have  in  their  conjugation 
no  equivalent  for  do  and  did,  and  use  not  the  Participle  Present  as  the 
English  do. 


118  PHILOSOPHY 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

I  did  carry  or  I  was  carrying,  Je  fiortais, 

thou  didst  carry,  tu  portals, 

he  or  she  did  carry,  il  ou  die  fiortait, 

PLURAL. 

We  did  carry,  Mcus  fioriions, 

you  did  carry,  vous  fiortkz. 

they  did  carry,  Us  ou  elles  portaient, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

I  carried,  Je  fiortai, 

thou  carriedst,  tu  portas, 

he  or  she  carried,  il  ou  elle  porta* 

Pt,URAL. 

We  carried,  JVous  fiortdmes, 

you  carried,  vous  portdtcs, 

they  carried,  Us  ou  elles  porterent, 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

I  shall  or  will  carry,  Je  porterai, 

thou  shalt  carry,  tu  porteras, 

he  or  she  shall  carry.  How  elle  port  era, 

PLURAL. 

We  shall  carry,  J\rous  porterons, 

you  shall  carry,  vous  porterez. 

they  shall  carry,  Us  ou  elles  porteront, 

PAST. 

I  have  carried,  &c.    J'  ai  porte,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

I  had  carried,  &c.  J'  avais  porte,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

1  had  carried,  &:c.  J*  eus  porte^  Sec. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  119 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 

I  shall  or  will  have  carried,  J'  auraifiorte,  &c. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

I  have  just  carried,  Je  viens  de  porter)  &c. 

FUTURE. 

I  am  to  carry,  Je  dots  fiorter,  &c. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 

I  am  going  to  carry,  Je  vaia  fiortcr^  &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Carry  (thou),  Porte, 
let  us  carry,  fiortons, 
carry,  fiortez, 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should  carry,  Je  fiorterais. 

thou  shouldst  carry,  tu  fiorterais. 

he  or  she  should  carry,  //  ou  tile  fiorterait* 

PLURAL. 

We  should  carry,  JVbws  fiorterions, 

you  should  carry,  vous  fiorteritz, 

they  should  carry.  Us  ou  tiles  fiorteraient. 

PAST. 
I  should  have  carried,  J'  aurais  fiorte,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 


That  I  may 

that  thou  mayst        }-  carry. 

that  he  or  she  may 


V  can 
J 


SINGULAR. 


Que  je  fiorte. 

que  tu  partes, 

qu'  il  ou  qu'  elle  fiorte. 


120  PHILOSOPHY 


PLURAL 

That  we  may 


lay  "I 

that  you  may    V  carry. 
that  they  may  J 


Que  nous  fiortions, 

que  vous  fiortiez, 

qu'  Us  ou  qu'  cites  fiortent. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  might  "J 

that  thou  mightst       V  carry. 

that  he  or  she  might  J 


Que  je  portasse, 
que  ^M  fiortasses, 
qu'  27  ou  qu*  e//^  portat. 


PLURAL. 


Tlmt  we  might  "J 

Ma^  you  might    V  carry. 

that  they  might  J 


Que  nous  portassions, 

que  T^OMs  portassiez, 

qu*  ?7«  ou  qu'  e//e«  portassent. 


PAST. 
7y«z?  I  may  have  carried,  Que  j'  aie  porte,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  carried,  Que  j*  eiisse  porte,  Sec. 


WE  shall  now  request  your  attention  to  the  conjugation 
of  the  reflective  Verb  S*  Habiller^  to  dress  one's  self:  and 
as  such  conjugations  are  difficult  to  the  English  learner, 
we  will  conjugate  S'  Habiller^  at  full  length,  four  various 
ways,  after  the  manner  of  avoir,  as  a  model. 

CONJUGATION 

OF  THE  REFLECTIVE  VERBS, 

EXEMPLIFIED 

IN  5'  HABILLER,  TO  DRESS  ONE'S  SELF. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 
To  dress  one's  self,  S^  habilkr* 


OF  LANGUAGE.  121 

PAST. 

To  have  dressed  one's  self,  S'  etre  habille* 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Dressingone'sself, 'S'AadzV/aw?.  |  Dressed,  Habille. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  dress,  I  do  dress  or  I  am  dressing  myself,  Je  m'  habille. 

thou  dressest  thyself,  tu  V  habilles. 

he  ?  J  C  himself,       iQ    ,  .   ,.,. 

she  r'"'"? herself,     eUe\'  ''"'""'■ 

one,  any  body,  8cc.  dresses  one's  self,  on  «'  habille, 

PLURAL. 

We  dress  ourselves,  JVbw*  nous  habillons, 

you  dress  yourself  or  yourselves,  vous  voua  habillez, 

ils  } 
they  dress  themselves,    ,.     >  s'  habillent. 

People,  they,  &c.  dress  themselves,  on  s'  habille. 
PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

I  did  dress  or  I  W2is  dressin?^  myself,  Je  m'  habillais. 

thou  didst  dress  thyself,  tu  V  habillais, 

he   }   ,.,     ,  Uiimself,     il}    ,  ,    ....  . 

,     >  did   dress  <  ,         ,c     n  c  ^  habtllait, 
she  3  ^herself,  elle^ 

PLURAL. 

We  did  dress  ourselves,  JVbus  nous  habillions, 
you  did  dress  yourselves,  -uous  vous  habilliez. 

they  did  dress  themselves    \    .,    ^  s'  habillaient, 
PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

I  dressed  myself,  Je  m'  liabillai, 
thou  dressedst  thyself,  tu  V  habillas, 
he  dressed  himself,  il  s'  habilla. 

VOL.    H.  R 


122  PHILOSOPHY 

PLURAL. 

We  dressed  ourselves,  JVous  nous  habilldmes, 
you  dressed  yourselves,  vous  vous  habilldtes. 
they  dressed  themselves,  Us  s'  habillerent. 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

I  shall  or  will  dress  myself,  Je  m'  habillerai, 
thou  shalt  dress  thyself,  tu  t*  habilleras, 
he  shall  dress  himself,  il  «'  habillera. 


We  shall  dress  ourselves,  JS/ous  nous  habillerons, 
you  shall  dress  yourselves,  vous  vous  habillerez, 
they  shall  dress  themselves,  Us  s'  habUleront, 

PAST. 

SINGULAR. 

I  have  dressed  myself,  Je  me  suis  habUle*, 
thou  hast  dressed  thyself,  tu  t'  es  habUle, 
he  has  (h'essed  himself,  U  s'  est  habille, 
she  has  dressed  herself,  elle  «'  est  habUlee, 

PLURAL, 

We  have  dressed  ourselves,  J^oiis  nous  sommes  habUles, 

you  have  dressed  yourselves,  vous  vous  etes  habUles, 

,1        ,  1  1  .,  ,  C  Us  se  sont  habUles, 

they  have  dressed  themselves,   -<    ,,  ,    ,.„. 

^  cues  se  sont  habUlees, 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

I  had  dressed  myself,  Je  vt'  etais  habUle^  6cc. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  dressed  myself,  Je  mefus  habUle.^  £cc. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  have  dressea  myself,  Je  me  serai  habille,  Sec. 


*  The  Past  Tenses,  contrary  to  the  genuis  of  the  English  language,  are 
formed  by  adding  diilercnt  Tenses  of  etre,  to  be. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
I  have  just  dressed  myself,  Je  viens  de  m'  habiller,  &c. 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  dress  myself,  Je  dois  m*  habiller,  Sec. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  dress  myself,  Je  vais  m'  habiller^  Sec. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Dress  thyself,  Habille-tou 

let  us  dress  ourselves,  habillons-nous. 


dress      \  ,  '      ?  habillez- 

^  yourselves,  5 


CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should  dress  myself,  Je  m'  Iiabillerais, 
thou  shouldst  dress  thyself,  tu  t'  habillerais, 
he  should  dress  himself,  il  s'  IiabiUerait. 

PLURAL. 

We  should  dress  ourselves,  JVous  nous  habillerions, 
you  should  dress  yourselves,  voua  vous  habilleriez. 
they  should  dress  themselves,  ils  s'  habiller aient, 

PAST. 

I  should  have  dressed  myself,  Je  me  serais  habille^  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

T?iat  I  may  dress  myself.  Que  ye  /«'  habille, 
that  thou  mayst  dress  thyself,  que  tu  f  habillea, 
that  he  may  dress  himself,  qu'  il  *'  habille. 


124  PHILOSOPHY 

PLURAL. 

That  we  may  dress  ourselves,  Que  noiLs  nous  habillions, 
that  you  may  dress  yourselves,  que  vous  vous  habilliez. 
that  they  may  dress  themselves,  qu'  ils  s*  habillent. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  might  dress  myself.  Que  je  rn'  habillasse, 
that  thou  mightst  dress  thyself,  que  tu  f  habillassea, 
that  he  may  dress  himself,  qu'  il  «'  habilldt. 


That  w^e  might  dress  ourselves.  Que  nous  nous  habillassions. 
that  you  might  dress  yourselves,  que  vous  vous  habillassiez, 
that  they  might  dress  themselves,  qu'  Us  s'  habillassent, 

PAST. 

That  I  may  have  dressed  myself,  Que  je  me  sois  habille,  8cc. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

That  I  might  have  dressed  myself,  QueyV  mefusse  habille,  &c. 

NEGATIVELY. 

INFINITIVE. 
PRESENT. 


r 

j*s  self,  < 

L 


JVe  s*  habiller  fiasy 
Not  to  dress  one's  self,  ^  ou 

ne  pas  s'  habiller. 


PAST. 
Not  to  have  dressed  one's  self,  M  s'  etre  fias  habillS. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  '     - 

Not  dressing  one's  self,  JVe  s'  habillant  fias» 

PAST. 
Not  having  dressed  one's  self,  JVe  s'  etant  fias  habille* 


OF  LANGUAGE.  125 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  do  not  dress  or  I  am  not  dressing  myself,  Je  ne  tyC  habille  fias, 
thou  dost  not  dress  thyself,  tu  7ie  t'  habilles  pas. 

f   >  does  not  dress  s  u  "^   j^'  wV  ou  elle  ne  s*  habille  fias. 

one,  &c.  does  not  dress  one's  self,  on  ne  s'  habille  fias, 

PLURAL. 

We  do  not  dress  ourselves,  JVous  ne  nous  habillons  pas, 
you  do  not  dress  yourselves,  vous  ne  vous  habillez  pas, 
they  do  not  dress  themselves,  ils  ou  elles  ne  «'  habillent  pas„ 
people,  &c.  do  not  dress  themselves,  on  ne  s'  habille  pas, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


Je  ne  m*  habillais  pas. 


SINGULAR. 

I  did  not  dress  or  I  was 
not  dressing  myself, 

thou  didst  not  dress  thyself,  tu  ne  V  habillais  pas, 
he  did  not  dress  himself,  il  ne  s'  habillait  pas. 


We  did  not  dress  ourselves,  JVbua  ne  nous  liabillions  pas, 
you  did  not  dress  yourselves,  -uous  ne  vous  liabilliez  pas. 
they  did  not  dress  themselves,  ils  ne  s*  habillaient  pas. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

1  did  not  dress  myself,  Je  ne  m'  habillai  pas, 
thou  didst  not  dress  thyself,  tu  ne  V  habillas  pas. 
he  did  not  dress  himself,  il  ne  s'  habilla  pas. 

PLURAL. 

We  did  not  dress  ourselves,  iN'ous  ne  nous  habilldmes  pas, 
you  did  not  dress  yourselves,  vous  ne  vous  h.ibilldtes  pas, 
they  did  not  dress  themselves,  ils  ne  «'  habillerent  pas. 


126  PHILOSOPHY 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

I  shall  not  dress  myself,  Je  ne  m'  habillerai  pas. 
thou  shalt  not  dress  thyself^  tu  ne  V  habilleras  fias, 
he  shall  not  dress  himself,  il  ne  s'  habilkra  pas. 

PLURAL. 

We  shall  not  dress  ourselves,  JVbus  ne  nous  habillerons  fias, 
you  shall  not  dress  yourselves,  vous  ne  vous  habillerez  pas, 
they  shall  not  dress  themselves,  Us  ne  s'  habilleront  pas. 

PAST. 

SINGULAR. 

I  have  not  dressed  myself,  Je  ne  me  suis  pas  "1 

thou  hast  not  dressed  thyself,  tu  ne  t'  es  pas  K-habille. 

he  has  not  dressed  himself,  //  ne  s'  est  pas    J 

PLURAL. 

We  have  not  dressed  ourselves,  A^ous  ne  nous  sommes  pas 
you  have  not  dressed  yourselves,  vous  ne  vous  etes  pas 
they  have  not  dressed  themselves.  Us  ne  se  sont  pas. 


1  r 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 
I  had  not  dressed  myself,  Je  ne  m'  etais  pas  habUle^  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  not  dressed  myself,  Je  ne  me  f  us  pas  habUle,  Sec. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  not  have  dressed  myself,  Je  ne  me  serai  pas  habUle,  Sec. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
I  have  not  just  dressed  myself,  Je  ne  v tens  pas  de  m'  habUler^  Sec. 

FUTURE. 
1  am  not  to  dress  myself,  Je  ne  dots  pas  m'  habUler,  Sec. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  not  going  to  dress  myself,  Je  ne  vais  pas  m'  habUler^  Sec. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  127 


IMPERATIVE. 


Do  not  dress  thyself,  Ne  V  habille  pas, 

let  us  not  dress  ourselves,    ne  nous  habillons pas* 

do  not  dress  <  ^  ,       >  ne  vous  habillez  pas, 

I  yourselves  3 


CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should,  Sec.  not  dress  myself,  Je  ne  m'  habillerais  pas, 
thou  should  St  Dot  dress  thyself,  tu  ne  C  habillerais  pas, 
he  should  not  dress  himself,  //  ne  s*  habillerait  pas, 

PLURAL. 

We  should  not  dress  ourselves,  J^oils  ne  nous  habillerions  pas, 
you  should  not  dress  yourselves,  vous  ne  vous  habilleriez  pas, 
they  should  not  dress  themselves,  ils  ne  «'  habilleraient  pas, 

PAST. 

I  should  not  have  dressed  myself,  Je  ne  me  serais  pas  habille^  kc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  may  not  dress  myself,  Queye  ne  m*  habillc  pas. 
that  thou  mayst  not  dress  thyself,  que  tu  ne  t*  habilles  pas, 
that  he  may  not  dress  himself,  qu'  il  ne  s*  habille  pas, 

PLURAL. 

That  we  may  not  dress  ourselves.  Que  nous  ne  nous  habillions pas, 
that  you  may  not  dress  yourselves,  que  vous  ne  vous  liabilUezpas, 
that  they  may  not  dress  themselves,  qu'  ils  ne  s*  habillent  pas. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

lliat  I  might  not  dress  myself,  Queje  ne  m*  habillasse  pas. 
that  thou  mightst  not  dress  thyself,  que  tu  ne  /'  habillasses  pas. 
that  he  might  r.ot  dress  himself,  qu'  //  ne  s*  habiUdt  pas. 


128  PHILOSOPHY 

PLURAL. 

That  we  might  not  dress  ourselves,  Que  now  ne  nous  habillas' 

sions  /las. 
that  you  might  not  dress  yourselves,  que  vous  ne  vous  hahillas' 

siez  pas. 
that  they  might  not  dress  themselves,  qu'  ils  ne  s*  habillassent 

pas. 

PAST. 

That  I  m.ay  not  have  dressed  myself,  Que  je  tie  me  sois  pas 

habille,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  not  have  dressed  myself.  Que  je  ne  me  fosse  pas 

INTERROGATIVELY. 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

•  Do  I  dress  myself?        )    m' ImbUU-je? 

am  1  dressmg  myselt :  3  •' 

dost  thou  dress  thyself?  t*  Iiabilles-tu? 

1        Sl^e    >    ,  ^\{\m%t\P.\s' habille-t-il? 

'^""^'^  I  she  5  '^''''^^  I  hersdf  ?"  5  s'  habille-t-elle  ? 

does  one  dress  one's  self?  s'  habille-t-on? 

PLURAL. 

Do  we  dress  ourselves?  A^ous  habillons-nous ? 

do  you  dress  yourselves  ?  vous  habillez--oous  ? 

,     ^,         ,  ^,  1        5    ^ «'  fiabillent-ils  ? 

do  they  dress  themselves  ?  |  ^,  f^^m^^.^^u^^  j. 

do  people  dress  themselves?  «'  habille-t-on? 
PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

,,        .        >  my stlP.  M*  habillais-Je  ? 
was  1  dressmg  3 

didst  thou  dress  thyself?  t*  habillais-tu? 
did  he  dress  himself?  *'  habillait-il? 


OF  LANGUAGE.  139 


Did  we  dress'ourselves  ?  J^ous  habillions-nous  ? 
did  ypu  dress  yourselves  ?  -oous  habilUez-vous  ? 
did  they  'dress  themselves  ?  «*  habiliment -Us  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

Did  I  dress  myself?  M'  habillai-je? 
didst  thou  dress  thyself  ?  t*  habillas-tu  ? 
did  he  dress  himself  ?  s*  habilla-t-il? 

PLURAL. 

Did  we  dress  ourselves  ?  J^oiis  habilldmes-nous  ? 
did  you  dress  yourselves  ?  votis  habilldtes-vous  ? 
did  they  dress  themselves  ?  «'  habillerent-ils  ? 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

Shall  I  dress  myself?  iW'  habillerai-je ? 
shalt  thou  dress  thyself  ?  t*  habilleras-tu  ? 
shall  he  dress  himself?  s'  habillera-t-il? 


Shall  we  dress  ourselves  ?  M)U8  habiUerons-nous  ? 
shall  you  dress  yourselves  ?  vous  habillerez-vous  ? 
shall  they  dress  themselves?  «'  habiUeront-ils? 

PAST. 


SINGULAR. 

Have  I  dressed  myself?  Me  suis-je' 

hast  thou  dressed  thyself?  t*  es-tu    \.habiUe? 

has  he  dressed  himself?  «'  est-U 


] 


PLURAL. 

Have  we  dressed  ourselves  ?  JVbus  sommea-nous  "J 

have  you  dressed  yourselves?  voils  etes-vous       S-habilles? 

have  they  dressed  themselves  ?  se  sont-ils  J         * 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

Had  I  dressed  myself  ?  M'  etais-je  habille  ?  8cc. 

PAST  ANTERIOR   PERIODICAL. 

Had  I  dressed  myself?  Mefua-je  habille?  &c. 
VOL.  II.  s 


130  PHILOSOPHY 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
Shall  I  have  dressed  myself?  Me  sercU-je  habilU?  &c. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Have  I  just  dressed  myself?   Viens-je  de  m*  habiUer  ?  &€• 

FUTURE. 
Am  I  to  dres,s  myself?  Dois-je  trC  habiller?  Sec. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
Am  I  going  to  dress  myself?    Vais-je  m'  habiller  ?  &c. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

Should  I  dress  myself  ?  M*  habillerais-je  f 
shouldst  thou  dress  thyself?  f  habillerais-tu ? 
should  he  dress  himself?  *'  habiller  ait  41? 

PLURAL. 

Should  we  dress  ourselves  ?  JVous  habillerions-nous  ? 
should  you  dress  yourselves  ?  vous  habilleriez-vous  ? 
should  they  dress  themselves  ?  s'  habiller aient-ils  ? 

PAST. 

Should  I  have  dressed  myself?  Me  serais-je  habillS?  &c. 

INTERROGATIVELY  ^  NEGATIVELY. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

Do  I  not  dress  or  am  I  not  dressing  myself  ?  J^em'  habille-jefiasf 

dost  thou  not  dress  thyself?  ne  t*  habilles-tu  pas  ? 

,         C  he       >  J  C  himself,      ?  ne  s'  habille-t-il  ou  elle 

does  <       ,     >■  not  dress  <      ,        \r:,  t      ^      9 
^  or  she  3  c  °^  herselt :  3      pas  f 

does  one  not  dress  one's  self?  ne  s'  habille-l-on fias P 


OF  LANGUAGE.  J3l 

PLURAL. 

Do  we  not  dress  ourselves  ?  JVe  nous  habillons-nous  fias  ? 
do  you  not  dress  yourselves?  ne  -vmis  habillez-vous  pas  ? 
do  they  not  dress  themselves?  ne  s*  habillent-ils  ou  elles  pas? 
do  people  not  dress  themselves?  ne  s'  habille-t-on  pas  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGTJLAK. 

Did  I  not  dress  or  was  I  not  dressing  myself?  Ae  m'  habillais-je 

pas? 
didst  thou  not  dress  thyself?  ne  t'  habillais-tu  pas  ? 
did  he  not  dress  himself?  ne  s'  habillait4l pas  ? 

PLURAL. 

Did  we  not  dress  ourselves?  JVe  nous  habillzons -nous pas? 
did  yol^hot  dress  yourselves  ?  ne  vous  habilliez-vous  pas  ? 
did  they  not  dress  themselves  ?  ne  s'  habillaient-ils  pas  ? 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

Did  I  not  dress  myself?  JVe  m*  liabillai-je  pas? 
didst  thou  not  dress  thyself?  ne  f  habillas-tu  pas  ? 
did  he  not  dress  himself?  ne  s'  habilla't-ilpas? 


Did  we  not  dress  ourselves  ?  JVe  nous  habilldmes-nous  pas  ? 
did  you  not  dress  yourselves  ?  ne  -vous  habilldtes-vous  pas  ? 
did  they  not  dress  themselves  ?  ne  s'  habillerent-ils pas? 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

Shall  I  not  dress  myself?  J\''e  m'  habilleraUje pas? 
shalt  thou  not  dress  thyself?  ne  V  habilleras-tu  pas? 
shall  he  not  dress  himself?  ne  s'  habillera-i4l pas ? 

PLURAL. 

Shall  we  not  dress  ourselves,  J\''e  nous  habiUtronS'UOus  pas  ? 
shall  you  not  dress  yourselves,  ne  vous  Imbillerez-vous  pas  ? 
shall  they  not  dress  themselves,  ne  s*  habilkront-ils  pas  ? 

PAST. 

SINGULAR. 

Have  I  not  dressed  myself?  JVe  me  suis-je  pas^ 

hast  thou  not  dressed  thyself?  ne  f  es-tupas     yhabille? 

has  he  not  dressed  himself?  ve  s*  eaAlhas        i 


32  PHILOSOPHY 


PLURAL. 


Have  we  not  dressed  ourselves  ?  J^e  nous  sommes'nous  fias^  ^ 
have  you  not  dressed  yourselves  ?  ne  vous  etes-vous  fias 
have  they  not  dressed  themselves  ?  ne  se  sont-ils  fias 


pas     t  ?i 

2         H 

J  <i 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 
Had  I  not  dressed  myself?  JVe  m'  etais-je  fias  habille?  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
Had  I  not  dressed  myself?  JSfe  me  fus-je  pas  habille?  &c. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
Shall  I  not  have  dressed  myself?  M'e  me  serai-je  fias  hah'ile?  Sec. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Have  I  not  just  dressed  myself?  M  vien^-jepas  de  m'  hahiller?  8cc , 

FUTURE. 

Am  I  not  to  dress  myself?  J\!'e  dois-je  pas  in?  habilkr^  &c. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
Am  I  not  going  to  dress  myself?  JsTe  vais-je  pas  m*  habiller?  Sec. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

Should  I  not  dress  myself?  JVe  w'  habillerais-je  fias? 
shouldst  thou  not  dress  thyself?  ne  f  habillerais-tu  pas? 
should  he  not  dress  himself?  ne  s'  habillerait-il fias ? 

PLURAL. 

Should  we  not  dress  ourselves?  J^e  nous  habilkrions-nous  fias ? 
should  you  not  dress  yourselves?  ne  vous  habilleriez  vous  fias? 
should  they  not  dress  themselves?  ne  s'  habiller aient -Us  pas? 

PAST. 

Should  I  not  have  dressed  myself?  JVe  ne  serais-je  pas  habille  ?  &cc. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


in 


ESSENTIAL  REMARK. 


THERE  are  several  French  Verbs,  which,  though 
reflective,  are  not  rendered  as  such  in  English,  and 
considering  the  frequent  mistakes  occasioned  thereby, 
we  here  subjoin  a  list  of  such  Verbs  as  are  reflective  only 
in  French,  which  we  desire  the  scholar  to  commit  to 
memory. 


VERBS  REFLECTED  IJV  FREATCIf. 


abonner,  to  compound. 
absienir,  to  abstain. 
accorder,  to  agree. 
assoir,  to  sit  down. 
attacher,  to  stick. 
baigner,  to  bathe. 
baisser,  to  stoop. 
cantonner,  to  canton. 
couchery  to  go  to  bed. 
debattre,  to  struggle. 
deborder^  to  flow  over. 
dedire,  to  retract. 
de/ier,  to  distrust. 
de/iec/ier,  to  make  haste. 
demetre,  to  resign. 
desist er,  to  give  over. 
elancer,  to  leap  upon. 
emparer,  to  seize  upon. 
emfiorter,  to  get  in  a  passion. 
emfiresser,  to  be  eager. 
€71  aller^  to  go  away. 
endormir^  to  fall  asleep. 
enfuir^  to  run  away. 
enhardir,  to  grow  bold. 
enraciner,  to  take  root. 
enrhumer,  to  catch  cold. 
enrichir^  to  grow  rich. 
entretenir^  to  discourse  with. 
envoler,  to  fly  away. 

^^— >.  i::r;. 

esrjuiver,  to  steal  away. 
eionner,  to  M'onder. 
evamuir^  to  faint  away. 
evafiorer^  to  evaporate. 


«'  cvertuer^  to  strive. 

sefdcher^  to  get  angry. 

sefaire^  to  get  used. 

sefarder^  to  paint. 

sejier^  to  trust. 

sejigurer^  to  fancy. 

sejietrir^  to  fade  away. 

se  fondre^  to  melt. 

se  formaliser^  to  find  fault. 

*e  glisser,  to  creep  in. 

«e  Aarer,  to  make  haste. 

&•'  iinaginer,  to  fancy, 

«'  ingerer,  to  intermeddle. 

s'  insinuer,  to  steal  in. 

5e  lever,  to  rise. 

«e  Uquefier,  to  liquefy. 

5e  marier,  to  marry. 

se  mefier,  to  distrust. 

«e  mepreiidre,  to  mistake. 

«e  moquer,  to  laugh  at. 

5e  mutiner,  to  mutiny. 

5(?  piquer,  to  pretend  to. 

«e  plaindre,  to  complain. 

se  iiromener,  to  walk. 

5e  rapfieler,  to  recollect. 

5c  rejouir,  to  rejoice. 

«e  repentir,  to  repent. 

se  reposer,  to  rest. 

5e  ressouvenir,  to  remember. 

«e  revolter,  to  rebel. 

«(?  saisir,  to  seize  upon. 

«e  soumettre,  to  submit. 

«e  souvenir,  to  remember. 

sc  vanter,  to  boast. 


134 


PHILOSOPHY 


The  scholar  knowing,  from  the  conjugation  of  porter 
and  *'  hahiller^  that  the  tenses  of  a  regular  Verb  are  form- 
ed from  the  Injimtive^  may,  by  comparing  any  Verb  of 
that  conjugation  with  aller^  acquire  a  very  just  idea  of 
what  constitutes  the  irregularity  of  a  Verb. 


CONJUGATION 

or  THE 

VERB,  ALLER,  TO  GO, 

WITH  ITS  RADICAL  TENSES  ONLY 
INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

To  go,  Aller. 


PAST. 

I  To  have  gone,  etre  *  alle. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Going,  Mlant, 


Gone,  Alle. 


INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 


SIKGULAR. 

I  go,  I  do  go,  I  am  going,  Je 

vais, 
thou  goest,  &c.  tu  vas, 
he  or  she  goes,  il  ou  elle  va, 
one,  any  body,  Sec.  goes,  on  va. 


PLURAL. 

We  go,  JVous  allons, 
you  go,  V0U8  allez, 
they  go,  ils  ou  elles  vont, 
people,  we,  they,   &c.   go, 
on  va. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


was  gomg. 


I  did  go,  or  I 

allais. 
thou  didst  go,  tu  allais. 
he  did  go,  il  allait. 


PLURAL. 


We  did  go,  JVous  allions, 
you  did  go,  vous  alliez, 
they  did  go^  ils  allaient. 


*  etre  is  used  instead  of  avoir  to  form  the  past  tenses;  thus  we  sayjff 
3uis  alley  I  have  gone,  and  never ^■'  ai  alle. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


135 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

Plural. 


SINGULAR. 


I  went,  J^  allai, 
thou  went,  tu  alias* 
he  went,  il  alia. 


We  went,  JVbws  alldmes. 
you  went,  vous  alldtes, 
they  went,  its  allerent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


1  shall,  or  will  go,  J*  ind, 
thou  shalt  go,  tu  iras, 
he  shall  go,  il  ira. 


PLURAL. 


We  shall  go,  JVous  irons. 
you  shall  go,  -vous  irez. 
they  shall  go,  ils  ironu 


IMPERATIVE. 

Go  (thou),   Va, 
let  us  go,  allons. 
go,  aUez. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL, 


I  should,  would  or  could  go, 

J*  irais, 
thou  shouldst  go,  tu  irais, 
he  should  go,  //  irait. 


We  should  go,  Mju^  irions, 
you  should  go,  vou^  iriez, 
they  should  go,  ils  iraient. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 

That  I  may  go,  Que  J*  aille, 
that  thou    mayst  go,    que  tu 

allies, 
that  he  may  go,  qu  *//  aille. 


PLURAL. 


That  we  may  go.  Que  nous  al- 
liens, 
that  you  may  go,  quevous  alliez, 
that  they  may  go,  qu  'ils  aillent. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  might  go.  Que  j'  allasse, 

that  thou  might'st  go,  que  tu  allasses. 

that  he  might  go,  qu'  il  alldt. 


136  PHILOSOPHY 

PLURAL. 

That  we  might  go,  Que  nous  allassions, 
that  you  might  go,  que  vous  allassiez, 
that  they  might  go,  qu'  Us  aUassent, 

THE  VERB  REFLECTIVE 

S*  EN  ALLER,  TO  GO  AWAY,  IS  THUS  CONJUGATED. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

To  go  away,  S'  en  aller. 

PAST. 

To  have  gone  away,  S'  en  etre  alle, 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Going  away,  5'  en  allant,  |  Gone  away,  En  alle, 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  go,  I  do  go,  I  am  going  away,  Je  m'  envais  oxije  m'  en  vas. 

thou  goest  away,  tu  f  en  -vas. 

he  or  she  goes  away,  il  ou  elle  s'  en  va, 

one,  any  body,  &c.  goes  away,  on  s*  en  va. 


We  go  away,  JVbus  nous  en  allons. 
you  go  away,  uous  vous  en  allez, 
they  go  away.  Us  ou  elles  s'  en  vont. 
people,  we,  they.  Sec  go  away,  on  s'  en  va. 
And  so  on  for  the  other  tenses. 


PAST  TENSES. 


'AST. 

I  have 

^ 

'AST    ANTERIOR. 

I  had 

>^ 

'AST  ANT.  PERIODICAL, 

.  I  had             { 

go 

'AST   POSTERIOR. 

I  shall  have  J 

Je  7)1*  en  suis    "^ 
Je  7n'  en  etais 
Je  m'  enfus       ("^ 
Je  m*  en  serai 


Y' 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


157 


IMPERATIVE. 

Go  (thou)  away,   Fa-t*  en. 
let  us  go  away,  allons-nous  e?i, 
go  away,  allez-vous  en. 

And  so  on  for  the  other  tenses. 

To  conclude  at  once  what  relates  to  the  irregular 
Verbs  of  this  conjugation,  we  shall  inform  you  that  the 
Verb  Envoyer^  to  send,  is  irregular^  in  two  tenses,  viz. 
the  Present  Posterior  of  the  Indicative  and  the  Conditional 
Present. 


INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


I  shall  or  will 
thou  shalt 
he  or  she  shall 
one,  any  body,  &c. 


} 


send, 


J*  enverraim 
tu  enverras. 
il  ou  elle  enverra, 
on  enverra. 


PLURAL, 


We  shall 

you  shall 

they  shall 

people,  we,  they,  &c.  shall^ 


>send. 


JVous  enverrons. 
voufs  enverrez, 
its  ou  elles  enverront, 
on  enverra. 


CONDITIONAL. 


PRESENT. 


I  should  "^ 

thou  shouldst        !         , 
he  or  she  should  f  ' 

one,  &c.  should  J 


We  should 
you  should 
they  should  , 

people,  &c.  should  J 
VOL.  II. 


>send. 


SINGULAR. 

J*  enverrats. 
tu  enverraia, 
il  ou  elle  enverrait, 
on  enverrait, 

PLURAL. 

JVous  env  err  ions, 
vous  €7iverHez, 
its  ou  elles  enverraient. 
on  enverrait, 

T 


138  PHILOSOPHY 

Note.  There  are  some  trifling  irregularities  in  the 
spelling  of  a  few  Verbs  belonging  to  this  conjugation, 
among  which  we  shall  notice  those  of  the  Verbs  ending 
in  ger  and  cer.  In  order  to  soften  the  pronunciation, 
these  require  that  e  should  be  placed  immediately  before 
the  vowel  a:  Example,  Changer^  manger  must  be  writ- 
ten change-ant,  mangeant;  changeais,  mangeais,  &c.  in 
the  Participle  Present  and  Present  Anterior  of  the  In- 
dicative ;  and  not  changant^  mangant ;  changais^  mangais; 
which  latter  method  of  spelling  would  be,  to  a  French 
ear,  highly  grating.  For  the  same  reason,  in  those  in 
cer^  as  recommencer^  avancer^  &c.  the  letter  c  before  a  takes 
on  the  sound  of  «,  which  is  signified  by  placing  under 
the  c  a  cedilla  thu^  g.  Hence  we  must  write  commen- 
cant,  avan9ant ;  commensals,  avansais,  with  the  cedilla, 
the  Verb  Piier^  to  stink,  which,  agreeably  to  the  inflec- 
tion of  a  regular  Verb,  should  make  in  the  three  first  per- 
sons, je  piie^  tu  pues^  il  pue^  on  the  contrary  makes  je  pus^ 
tu  piiSy  il  put* 

In  order  to  complete  the  subject  of  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, we  shall  now  present  the  pupil  with  a  view  of  the 
Verb  Geler^  to  freeze,  as  conjugated  in  the  third  person 
singular  only. 


CONJUGATION  OF  GELER,  TO  FREEZE. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

To  freeze,   Geler, 

PAST. 
To  have  frozen,  Avoir  gele. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Freezii  g,  u.laif.  |  Frozer,  Gelr 


OF  LANGUAGE.  139 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 
It  freezes,  II  gele. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
It  did  freeze,  //  gelait, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
It  froze,  //  gela^ 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 
It  will  freeze,  //  gelera, 

PAST. 
It  has  frozen,  II  a  gele, 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
It  had  frozen,  //  avait  gele. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
It  had  frozen,  //  eut  gele, 

PAST   POSTERIOR. 
It  shall  or  will  have  frozen,  //  aura  gele. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
It  has  just  frozen,  //  vient  de  geler. 

FUTURE. 
It  is  to  freeze,  //  doit  geler. 

INSTANT   FUTURE. 
It  is  going  to  freeze,  //  va  geler. 


140  PHILOSOPHY 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

It  should  freeze,  //  gelerait, 

PAST. 

It  should  have  frozen,  //  aurait  gele, 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
That  it  may  freeze,  Qu'  il  gele. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

That  it  might  freeze,  Qu'  il  gelat, 

PAST. 

That  it  may  have  frozen,  Qu'  il  ait  gele, 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

That  it  might  have  frozen,  Qu'  il  eiit  gele. 

Note.  The  scholar  would  do  v^tW  to  exercise  him- 
self in  conjugating,  in  the  third  person  of  each  tense, 
some  of  the  following  Verbs,  which  are  all  of  the  first 
conjugation,  viz. 


To  snow,  JVeiger, 
to  thunder,  tonner. 
to  lighten,  eclairer. 
to  seem,  sembler. 
to  happen,  arriver. 


To  thaw,  degeler, 

to  hail,  greler, 

to  drizzle,  bruiner* 

to  concern,  importer. 

to  go,  aller,  in  such  phrases  as 


II  y  va  de  la  vie,  dc  V  honneur  ;  life,  honour  is  at  a  stake. 

SECOND  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  IN  IR, 

EXEMPLIFIED  IN  FUJVIR,    TO  PUNISH. 
INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 


To  punish,  Fwiir,  \  To  hrve  punished,  yA'G/r/; 


u?u. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  Ul 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Punishing,  Punissant.         |  Punished,  Puni, 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 
SINGULAR. 

I  punish,  I  do  punish,  or  I  am  punishing,  Je  punts, 

thou  punishest,  tu  punis, 

he  or  she  punishes,  il  ou  elle  fiumt, 

one,  any  body,  &c.  punishes,  on  fiunit* 


We  punish,  M)us  punisaons, 
you  punish,  vous  fiunissez. 
they  punish,  ils  ou  elle  fmnissent,  - 
people,  they,  &c.  punish,  on  fiunit, 

PRESENT   ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

We  did  punish,  Kous  fiunis- 

sions, 
you  did  punish,  vous  fmnissiez, 
they  did  punish,  ils  fiunissaient. 


Ididpumshorl_^    ,^^.^^_^.^_ 
I  was  punishing,  3 
thou  didst  punish,  tu  fiunissais, 
he  did  punish,  il  fmnissait. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  punished,  Je  punia, 
thou  punishedst,  tu  fiwiis. 
he  punished,  il  fiunit. 


We  punished,  JVbus  fiunimes, 
you  punished,  vous  fiunites, 
they  punished,  ils  iiunirent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

We  shall  punish,  J^ous  fiuni- 

rons» 
you  shall  punish,  vous  fiunlrez* 
they  shall  punish,  il puniront. 


I  shall  or  will  punish,   Je  pu- 

nirai, 
thou  shalt  punish,  tu  fiuniras. 
he  shall  punish,  il  punira. 


142  PHILOSOPHY 

PAST. 
I  have  punished,  J'  ai  fiuni,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
I  had  punished,  J'  avals  jiuni^  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  punished,  J'  eus  fiuni,  Sec. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  have  punished,  J'  aurai  p.uni,  &c. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
I  have  just  punished,  Je  viens  de  fiuntf,  &c. 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  punish,  Je  dots  fiunir,  &c. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  punish,  Je  vais  fiunir^  Sec. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Punish  (thou)j  Pujus, 
let  us  punish,  puntsson^* 
punish,  j[mnis8ez» 

CONDITIONAL. 
PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should,  h.c.  punish,  Je  punirais, 
thou  shouldst  punish,  tu  punirais^ 
he  should  punisli,  il  punirait^ 


'      OF  LANGUAGE.  143 

PLURAL. 

We  should  punish,  J\rous  funirions, 
you  should  punish,  vous  fiuniriez, 
they  should  punish,  Us  fiuniraient. 

PAST. 
I  should  have  punished,  J'  aurais  fiuni,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  may  punish,  Que  je  punisse* 
that  thou  mayst  punish,  que  tu  fiunisses, 
that  he  may  punish,  qu'  il  fiunisae. 

PLURAL. 

That  we  may  punish.  Que  nous  fiunissiona, 
that  you  may  punish,  que  vous  fiuniasiez, 
that  they  may  punish,  qu*  Us  fiunissent, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  might  punish,  ^mg  jc  fiunisse. 
that  you  mightst  punish,  que  tu  fiunisses, 
that  he  might  punish,  qu*  U/iunit, 

PLURAL. 

That  we  might  punish.  Que  nous  fiunissions. 
that  you  might  punish,  que  vous  fmnissiez, 
that  they  might  punish,  qu'  Us  fiunissent, 

PAST. 

That  I  may  have  punished.  Que  j*  aie  puni,  8cc. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  punished,  Que/  eusse  fiuni,  See. 

ICP  This  conjugation,  next  to  the  first,  is  the  most 
extensive,  as  it  embraces  about  three  hundred  and  seven 
Verbs. 


144  PHILOSOPHY 

THIRD  REGULAR  CONJUGATION, 

IN   TIR,  riR,  OR  MlRy 
EXEMPLIFIED  IN  SENTIR,  TO  FEEL. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 
To  feel,   Sentir. 

PAST. 
To  have  felt,  Avoir  sentu 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  ^-*-^^- 

Feeling,  Sentant.  |  Felt,  Senti. 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 
SINGULAR. 

I  feel,  I  do  feel,  or  1  am  feeling,  Je  sens. 

thou  feelest,  tu  sens. 

he  or  she  feels,  U  ou  elle  sent. 

one,  any  body,  &c.  feels,  on  sent. 

PLURAL. 

We  feel,  Mus  sentons. 

you  feel,  vous  sentez. 

they  feel.  Us  ou  elles  sentent. 

people,  they.  Sec  feel,  on  sent. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


PLURAL. 
SINGULAR. 

We  did  feel,  Mus  sentions. 


I  did  feel  or      \    je  sentais 
I  was  feeling,  > 
thou  didst  feel,  tu  sentais. 
he  did  feel,  U  sentait. 


you  did  feel,  vous  sentiez. 
they  did  feel.  Us  smtaient. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  145 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  felt,  Je  sentis. 
thou  feltest,  tu  sentis, 
he  felt,  //  sentit. 


We  felt,  JVotis  sentimes, 
you  felt,  vous  scntites, 
they  felt,  Us  sentirent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  shall  or  will  feel,  Je  sentirai, 
thou  shalt  feel,  tu  sentiras, 
he  shall  feel,  il  sentira. 


We  shall  feel,  JVous  sentirons, 
you  shall  feel,  vous  sentirez, 
they  shall  feel,  Us  sentiront. 


PAST. 
I  have  felt,  J*  ai  senti,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
I  had  felt,  J*  avazs  senti,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

I  had  felt,  J*  eus  senti,  &c. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 

I  shall  have  felt,  J'  aurai  senti^  8cc. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

I  have  just  felt,  Je  viens  de  sentir,  &c. 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  feel,  Je  dois  sentir,  8cc. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  feel,  Je  vais  aentir,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Feel  (thou),  Sens, 
let  us  feel,  sentons, 
feel,  sentez, 

VOL.    II.  U 


146  PHILOSOPHY 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

I  should,  Sec.  feel,  Jesentirais.  I  We  should  feel,  JVbwssew^mon*. 
thou  shouklst  feel,  tu  sentirais,  \  you  should  feel,  vous  sentiriez. 
he  should  feel,  il  sentirait,  \  they  should  feel,  Us  sentiraient, 

PAST. 

I  should  have  felt,  J*  aurais  send,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 

That  I  may  feel.  Que  je  sente. 
that  thou  mayst  feel,  que  tu  sentes, 
that  he  may  feel,  qu'  il  sente. 


That  we  may  feel,  Que  nous  sentions. 
that  you  may  feel,  que  vous  sentiez, 
that  they  may  feel,  qu'  Us  sentent, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOH* 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  might  feel,  Que  je  sentisse, 
that  thou  mightst  feel,  que  tu  sentisses. 
that  he  might  feel,  qu'  U  sentit. 


That  we  might  feel.  Que  nous  sentissions, 
that  you  might  feel,  que  vous  sentissiez, 
that  they  might  feel,  qu'  Us  sentissent, 

PAST. 
That  I  may  have  felt,  Que  /  aie  senti,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  felt.  Que  j'  eusse  iseiiti,  &c. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


147 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS  ARE  CONJUGATED  IN 

THE  SAME  MANNER  WITH  SEJVTIR ; 

TO  WIT, 


Desservir, 

To  clear  the  table. 

Dormir, 

To  sleep. 

Mndormir^ 

To  lull  to  sleep. 

5'  endormirj 

To  fall  asleep. 
Redormir^ 
To  sleep  again. 
Se  rendormir^ 
To    fall    asleep 

again. 
Mentir^ 
To  lie. 
Dementir^ 
To  give  the  lie. 
Partivy 

To  set  out. 

Refiartir^ 

To  set  out  again, 

{or) 

To  reply. 
Se  refientir^ 
To  repent. 
Scntir, 
To  feel. 
Pressentir, 

To  foresee. 

Ressentir, 
To  resent. 
ServiVf 
To  serve. 

Se  servir^ 
To  make  use. 


Dites  au  domestique  de  dessei-vir^ 
Tell  the  servant  to  cltar  the  table, 
Le  tonnerre  m'  a  empeche  de  dormir, 
The  thunder  prevented  me  from  sleeping. 
Nous  n'  avons  jamais  pu  endor?mr  V  enfant, 
We  never  could  lull  the  child  to  deep, 
V  ai  commence  a  m'  endormir  a  la  pointe 
du  jour, 

I  began  to  fall  asleep  at  day-break. 

II  a  redorjni  malgre  le  bruit, 

He  sl'pt  again  in  spite  of  the  noise. 
Quant  a  moi,  je  ne  me  suis  pas  vendor mi^ 
As  for  me,  I  did  noi/all  asletp  again, 

Ne  le  croyez  pas,  il  ne  fait  que  mentir^ 
Dont  believe  him,  he  does  nothing  but  lie, 
S'  il  dit  cela,  je  le  dementirai^ 
If  he  says  so,  I  shall  give  him  the  lie. 
On  m'  a  dit  qu'  Wpartirait  a  la  fin  de  la  se- 

maine, 
I  have  been  told  that  he  would  set  out  at 
the  end  of  the  week. 

f  II  a  re9u  ordre  de  ne  pas  repartir^ 

\  He  has  received  orders  not  to  set  out 
<j       again, 

j  Qu'  avez-vous  u  repartir  a  cela  ? 

Lwhat  have  you  to  reply  to  that  ? 
Si  vous  le  faites,  vous  vous  en  repentirez, 
If  you  do  it,  you  nvill  repent  of  it. 
Je  se7is  une  grande  douleui*  de  tete, 
I  feci  a  great  pain  in  my  head. 
J'  ai/ires6?d72;/touslesmalheurs  qui  luisont 
arrives, 

I  have  foreseen  all  the  misfortunes    that 
have  befallen  him. 

II  resscnc  vivement  cette  insulte. 
He  feelingly  resents  this  insult. 

11  vous  a  scrvi  avcc  zele  dans  cette  affaire, 
He  lias  served  you  with  zeal  in  this  busi- 
ness. 
Servcz-vous  de  mon  cheval,  je  vous  le  prete, 
Alakc  use  of  my  horse,  I  lend  it  to  you. 


148 


PHILOSOPHY 


Sortir^ 

To  go  out. 

JRessortivy 

To  go  out  again. 


Ne  «or^ez -pas  avant  que  de  me  parler, 
Do  not  go  out  before  you  speak  to  me. 
Si  vous  ressortezj  je  vous  punirai, 
If  you  go  out  again,  I  will  punish  you. 


Note.  When  ressortir  is  used  as  a  law  term,  it  implies,  in 
the  English  acceptation,  to  be  within  the  jurisdiction  of  a  court, 
and  is  conjugated  like  fiunir ;  so  are 

Assortir,  to  match. 

Refiartir,  when  it  signifies  to  distribute. 

Asservir,  to  enslave  a  nation. 


FOURTH  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  IN  ENIR, 

EXEMPLIFIED  IN  TENIR,    TO  HOLD. 
INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

To  hold,   Tenir, 

PAST. 

To  have  held,  Avoir  tenu. 


PRESENT. 


Holding,   Tenant, 


PARTICIPLES. 

I  Held,  Tenu, 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 


Je  tiens. 


I  hold,  I  do  hold  or 
I  am  holding 
thou  boldest,  tu  tiens, 
he  or  she  holds,  il  ou  elle  tieni, 
one,  any  body,  &c.  holds,   on 
ticnt. 


We  hold,  M)us  tenons, 
you  hold,  vous  tenez, 
they  hold,  its  ou  elles  tiennent. 
people,  we,  they,  Stc.  hold,  on 

tient. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


tcriais. 


I  did  hold  01 

I  was  hokli 

thou  didst  hold,  tu  tenuis, 

he  did  hold,   il  ttnait. 


V/e  did  hokl,  J^ous  tenions. 
you  did  hold,  vouh  teniez, 
ihey  did  hold,  ils  tenaient. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  U9 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


I  held,  Je  tins, 
thou  heldest,  tu  tins, 
he  held,  il  tint. 


We  held,  JVbus  ttnmes, 
you  held,  vous  tintes, 
they  held,  ils  tinrent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


I  shall  or  will  hold,  Je  tiendrai, 
thou  shalt  hold,  tu  tiendras. 
he  shall  hold,  il  tiendra. 


We  shall  hold,  M)U8  tiendrons, 
you  shall  hold,  vous  tiendrez, 
they  shall  hold,  ils  tiendront. 


PAST. 
I  have  held,  J*  ai  tenuy  &g. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
I  had  held,    J'  avais  tenu,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  held,  J*  eus  tenu^  &c. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  have  held,   J*  aurai  tenu,  &c. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
I  have  just  held,  Je  viens  de  tenir^  &c. 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  hold,  Je  dots  teni?-,  &c. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  hold,   Je  vats  tenir,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Hold  (thou),  Tie7is. 
let  us  hold,  tenons, 
hold,  tenez. 


150  PHILOSOPHY 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should,  8cc.  hold,  Je  tiendrais, 
thou  shouldst  hold,  tu  tiendrais, 
he  should  hold,  il  tiendrait,  ' 

PLURAL. 

We  should  hold,  JVbus  tiendHons» 
you  should  hold,  vous  tiendriez, 
they  should  hold,  Us  tiendraient, 

PAST. 

I  should  have  held,  &c.  J*  aurais  tenu,  Sec. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

T/iat  I  may  hold.  Que  je  tienne, 
that  thou  mayst  hold,  que  tu  tiennes, 
that  he  may  hold,  qu'  il  tienne. 


That  we  may  hold.  Que  nous  tenions, 
that  you  may  hold,  que  vous  teniez, 
that  they  may  hold,  qu'  ils  tiennent, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  might  hold.  Que  je  tinsse. 
that  thou  mightst  hold,  que  tu  tinsses. 
that  he  might  hold,  qu'  il  tint. 

PLURAL. 

That  we  might  hold.  Que  nous  tinssions, 
that  you  might  hold,  que  vous  tinssiez, 
that  they  might  hold,  qu'  ils  tinsseni. 

PAST. 

That  I  may  have  held,  Que  7'  ate  tenuy  &c. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


151 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  held,  Quey'  eusae  tenu,  &c. 

N.  B.  The  scholar  will  exercise  himself  in  conjugating  the 
Verb  Venir^  so  useful  an  auxiliary  in  the  French  conjugation. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS  ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  TENIR. 


S'  abstenir^ 
To  abstain. 
Jpfiartenir, 
To  belong  to. 
Contenir, 
To  contain. 
Detenir, 
To  detain. 
Antrctenir, 

To  keep  up  or  en- 
tertain. 
S'  entretenir, 

To  converse. 

^Maintenir, 

!'o  maintain. 

ICbtenir, 

'o  obtain. 

letenir, 

.'o  retain. 
^Soutenir, 

'o  support. 

IVenir, 
''o  come. 

henir, 

'o  happen. 
^irconverdry 

'o  deceive. 
IConvenir, 
[To  agree. 


II  s'  en  est  abstenu  pendant  long-tems, 
He  abstained  from  it  a  great  while. 
Ce  bien  lui  a  appartenu  autrefois, 
This  estate  formerly  belonged  to  him. 
Tout  ce  qui  est  contenu  sous  les  cieux, 
All  that  is  contained  under  the  heavens. 
Nous  r  avons  detenu  comme  (ouen)  otage, 
We  have  detained  him  as  an  hostage. 
Je  les  ai  entretenus  a  mes  frais,  pendant 

un  an, 
I  have  entertained  or  kept  them  up  for  a 

year  at  my  expense. 
Je  nie  suis   entrttenu   avec   elle   toute   la 

soiree, 

I  have  conversed  with  her  the  whole  even- 

ing. 

II  a  ete  maintenu  dans  sa  charge,  en  depit 
d'  eux, 

He  has  been  maintained  in  his  office,  in 

spite  of  them. 
II  n'  a  pas  ohtenu  ce  qu'  il  demandait, 
He  has  not  obtained  what  he  asked  for. 
Nous  1'  avons  retenu  hier  a  souper, 
We  retained  him  yesterday  to  supper. 
Je  r  ai  soutenu  dans  toutes  ses  enireprises, 

I  have  supported  him  in  all  his  undertak- 

ings. 
Ne  suis-je  pas  venu  a  votre  secours  ? 
Have  I  not  come  to  your  assistance  ? 

II  est  ave7iu  ce  que  j'  avais  pens6, 
What  I  had  thought  happened. 
Le  voleur  a  circonvenu  les  juges, 
Ihe  thief  has  deceived  the  judges. 
Nou  ne  sommes  point  convmus  du  prix, 
We  did  not  agree  about  the  price. 


152 


PHILOSOPHY 


Convenir, 

To  suit. 

Devenir, 

To  become. 

Redevcnir-t 

To  become  again. 

Disconvenir^ 

To  deny. 

Parvenir^ 

To  attain. 

Pr&vemr^ 

To  anticipate. 

Pravenir, 

To  come  from. 

Se  ressouvenirf 

To  recollect. 
Reveniry 

To  come  back. 
5e  souvenir, 

To  remember. 
Subvemr, 
To  relieve. 
Survcnir, 

To  come  unex- 
pectedly. 


Cette  maison  ne  m'  a  pas  convenu, 

That  house  did  not  suit  me. 

A  force  d'  etudier,  il  est  devenu  savant, 

By  dint  of  study,  he  is  become  a  learned  man. 

II  ne  redeviendra  jamais  ce  qu'  il  a  6te, 

He  will  never  become  again  what  he  was. 

II  n*  en  est  jamais  disconvenuy 

He  has  never  denied  it. 

II  est  parvenu  aux  premieres  charges  de  la 

Republique, 
He  has  attained  the  first  offices  of  the  Re- 
public. 
Dans  les  hommes  extraordinaire s  1'  age 

est  firevenu  par  les  talens. 
In  extraordinary  men  age  is  anticipated  by 

talents. 
Cette  maladie  est  provenue  du  sang. 
This  disorder  is  come  from  the  blood. 
II  ne  s'  est  pas  ressouvenu  de  ce  que  je  lui 

avais  dit, 
He  did  not  recollect  what  I  had  told  him. 
Vous  n'  etes  pas  revenu  a  1'  heure  conve- 

nue, 
Youdidnotco7ne6acX:atthe  appointed  hour. 
Votre  sceur  ne  s'  est  pas  souvenue  de  sa 

promesse, 
Your  sister  did  not  remember  her  promise. 
J'  ai  subvenu  aux  besoins  de  votre  ami, 
I  have  relieved  your  friend  in  his  wants. 
Des  renforts  sont  survenus  pendant  la  ba- 

taille. 
Reinforcements  came  unexpectedly  during 

the  battle. 


FIFTH  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  IN  EVOIR, 
EXEMPLIFIED  IN  RECEVOIR,  TO  RECEIVE. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT, 
To  receive,  Recevoir. 

PAST. 
To  have  received.  Avoir  requ. 


OI^  LANGUAGE.  153 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Receiving,  Recevant*     \  Received,  Rezu, 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  receive,  I  do  receive  or  I  am  receiving,  Je  recois, 

thou  receives!,  tu  repots. 

he  or  she  receives,  il  ou  elle  rec^oit. 

one,  any  body,  &c.  receives,  on  reqoit, 

PLURAL. 

We  receive,  JVous  recevons. 

you  receive,  vous  recevez, 

they  receive,  //*  ou  elks  re^oivent, 

people,  we,  they,  8cc.  receive,  on  re^oit. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 


>    Je  rccevats. 


I  did  receive  or 

I  was  receiving, 

thou  didst  receive,  tu  recevais, 

he  did  receive,  //  recevait. 


PLURAL. 

We  did  receive,  Mms  recruions, 
you  did  receive,  -vous  receviez, 
they  did  receive,  ils  recevaient. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

I  received,  Je  rectus. 
thou  receivedst,  tu  rectus, 
he  received,  il  recent. 

PLURAL. 

We  received,  J^ous  reclames. 
you  received,  vous  recutes, 
they  received.  Us  re(^urent, 

VOL.  II.  X 


154  PHILOSOPHY 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR, 

SINGULAR. 

I  shall  or  will  receive,  Je  recevrai, 
thou  shalt  receive,  tu  recevras, 
he  shall  receive,  il  recevra, 

PLURAL. 

We  shall  receive,  JVous  recevrom, 
you  shall  receive,  voiis  recevrez, 
they  shall  receive,  Us  recevrcmt, 

PAST. 
I  have  received,  J*  ai  re^u,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR, 
I  had  received,  J*  avals  re^u,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  received,  J*  eus  re(^Uy  &c. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  have  received,  J'  aurai  re^Uf  8cp* 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
I  have  just  received,  Je  viens  de  recevoir,  Sec. 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  receive,  Je  dois  recevoir,  &c. 

INSTANT   FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  receive,  Je  vais  recevoir,  8cc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Receive  (thou),  JReqois. 
let  us  receive,  recevons, 
receive,  recevez. 


O^  ^LANGUAGE.  155 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  should,  &c.  receive,  Je  reoevrais. 
thou  shouldst  receive,  tu  recevrais. 
he  should  receive,  U  recevrait. 

PLURAL. 

We  should  receive,  JVbus  recevriom, 
you  should  receive,  vous  recevriez* 
they  should  receive,  ils  recevraient. 

PAST. 

1  should  have  received,  J'  aurais  re^u,  8cc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

T/iat  I  may  receive,  Que  je  reqoive, 
that  thou  may  St  receive,  que  tu  re(^ives, 
that  he  may  receive,  qu*  il  re(^oive. 


That  we  may  receive,  Que  nous  rectrviona, 
that  you  may  receive,  que  vous  receviez, 
that  they  may  receive,  qu*  ils  rec^oivent, 

PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


T/mt  I  might         1 

?Aa^  thou  mightst  I.  receive, 

that  he  might        J 


That  we  might  1 

that  you  might  s  receive, 

t/tat  they  might  J 


SINGULAR. 

Que  je  re(^usse, 
que  tu  re(^usse8, 
qu'  //  re^iU. 


Que  nous  req,u8sions, 
que  vous  re(^ussiez» 
qu'  lis  rec^ussent. 


PAST. 


That  I  may  have  received,  Que  /  ale  recu,  &c. 


156 


PHILOSOPHY 


PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  received,  Que  y  euase  rec^u,  See* 

N.  B.  The  scholar  will  exercise  himself  in  conjugating  the 
Verb  Devoir,  an  auxiliary  in  the  French  conjugation. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED   LIKE  RECEVOIR. 


Ap-erce-voir, 
To  perceive. 
Concevoir, 
To  conceive. 
Decevoir, 
To  deceive. 
Devoir, 
To  owe. 

Devoir, 

To  be  obliged, 

Redevoir, 
To  owe  still. 
Percevoir, 
To  gather,  \ 
to  collect.  S 


Je  1'  ai  afiero^ue  le  premier, 

I  have  perceived  her  first. 

Je  ne  conq,ois  pas  ce  que  vous  me  dites, 

I  do  not  conceive  what  you  tell  me. 
Ses  esp^rances  ont  ete  de(^ues, 
His  hopes  have  been  deceived, 

II  doit  beaucoupd'  argent  a  ses  creanciers, 
He  owes  a  great  deal  of  money  to  his  cre- 
ditors. 

Tout  citoyen  doitoh^w  aux  lois  de  son  pays, 
Every  citizen  is  obliged  (or  ought)  to  obey 

the  laws  of  his  country. 
II  nous  redoit  environ  cinq  cents  gourdes, 
He  owes  us  «?/// about  five  hundred  dollars. 
II  est  prepose  pour  percevoir  les  taxes. 

He  is  appointed  to  collect  the  taxes. 


The  Verb  Falloir  (though  irregular)  occurring  so  fre- 
quently in  speech,  we  give  here  its  conjugation. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB 

FJLLOIR,  TO  BE  NECESSARY,  NEEDFUL  OR 

REQUISITE,   VIZ. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 
To  be  necessary,  Falloir, 


OF  LANGUAGE.  157 

PAST. 
To  have  been  necessary,  Avoir  fallu, 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

(None.)  I  Been  necessary,  Fallu, 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

It  is  necessary,  Ilfaut, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

It  was  necessary,  Ilfaltait, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

It  was  necessary,  Ilfallut* 

PRESENT   POSTERIOR. 

It  will  be  necessary,  Ilfaudra, 

PAST. 

It  has  been  necessary,  //  a  fallu, 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

It  had  been  necessary,  //  av  ait  fallu, 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
It  will  have  been  necessary,  //  aura  faUu, 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 
It  should  be  necessary,  //  faudrait. 

PAST. 
It  should  have  been  necessary,  UauraitfaJhu. 


158 


PHILOSOPHY 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
That  it  may  be  necessary,  Qu'  U faille, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 
That  it  might  be  necessary,  Qu'  ilfaUM* 

PAST. 
That  it  may  have  been  necessary,  Qu'  il  aitfallu, 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  it  might  have  been  necessary,  Qu'  il  eUtfallu* 


SIXTH  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  IN  RE, 
EXEMPLIFIED  IN  VEJVDRE. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

To  sell,   Fendre* 

PAST. 

To  have  sold,  ^voir  vendu. 

PARTICIPLES. 


PRESENT. 


Selling,  Vendant, 


Sold,   Vendu, 


INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT- 


SINGULAR. 


I  sell,  I  do  sell  or  I  am  sell- 
ing, Je  vends. 
thou  sellest,  Sec.  tu  vends, 
he  or  she  sells,  ///  ou  elle  vend, 
one, any  body.  Sec.  sells, o«ven«/. 


We  sell,  Nous  vendons,  \ 

you  sell,  vous  vendez, 
they  sell.  Us  ou  elles  vendent, 
people,  we,  they,  8cc.  sell,  on 
vend. 


OF  LANGUA<&E.  159 


PRESEWT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

We  did  sell,  Mjils  vendtcms, 
you  did  sell,  votes  vendiez. 
they  did  sell,  ila  vendaient. 


^^    X  J 


I  did  sell  or    I    J  ,.  . 

I  was  selling 

thou  didst  sell,  tu  vendais 
he  did  sell,  ilvendait. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


I  sold,  Je  vendis, 

thou  soldest,  tu  vendisi 

hei  sold,  il  vjsndit. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

We  sold,  n(ms  vendtmes, 
you  sold,  voiis  vendites, 
they  sold,  Us  vendirent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  shall  or  will  sell,  Je  vendrai, 
thou  shalt  sell,  tu  vendras^ 
he  shall  sell,  il  vendra. 


We  shall  sell,  ACous  vendrons. 
you  shall  sell,  vous  vendrez, 
they  shall  sell.  Us  vendront. 


BAST. 

I  have  sold,  J^  ai  vendu.  Sec. 

|»AST  ANTERIOR. 

I  had  sold,  J*  avaia  vendii,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

I  had  sold,  J'  eus  venduy  &c. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 

I  shall  have  sold,  J'  aurai  vendu,  &c. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

I  have  ,jus^ sold,  Je.viens  de  vendre^^  &c. 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  sell,  Je  doia  vendre,  &c. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  goings  to  sell,  Je  vaia  vendre^  8cc. 


160  PHILOSOPHY 


IMPERATIVE. 


Sell  (thou),  Vends, 
let  us  sell,  vendona, 
sell,  vendez. 


CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  should,  would  or  could  sell, 

Je  vendrais, 
thou  shouldst  sell,  tu  vendrais, 
he  should  sell,  U  vendrait. 


We  should  sell,  JVbus  vendrions, 
you  should  sell,  voiis  vendriez, 
they  should  sell,  Us  vendraient. 


PAST. 
I  should  have  sold,  J'  aurais  vendu^  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 


That  I  may 

that  thou  mayst    J.  sell, 

that  he  may 


} 


That  we  may 

that  you  may     ^  sell, 

that  they  may 


} 


SINGULAR. 

Que  je  "vende, 
que  tu  vendes, 
qu'  il  vende. 


Que  nous  vendions, 
que  vous  vendiez, 
qu'  Us  vendent. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SINGULAR. 


That  I  might       ^  |  Que^V  vendisse, 

that  thou  mightst  isell,     I  que  tu  vendisses, 
that  he  might        J  |  qu'  U  vend  it. 


That  we  might  1 
t/uit  you  might  i-sell, 
that  they  might  J 


Que  nous  vendissions, 
que  vous  vendissiez, 
qu'  Us  vendissent. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


161 


PAST. 

Tliat  I  may  have  sold,  Que  y '  aie  vendu^  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 

That  I  might  have  sold,  Que  j'  eusse  venduy  Sec. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE   VENDEE. 


jitte7idre, 
To  expect. 
jittendre. 
To  wait  for. 
Battre*^ 
To  beat. 

Abattre, 

To  pull  down. 

Combattre, 
To  fight. 
Debattre^ 
To  argue. 
Rabattrcy 
To  abate. 
Descendre^ 
To  come  down. 

Condescendre^ 
To  comply. 
Fondre^ 
To  melt, 
Confondre^ 

To  confound. 


Nous  r  attendons  le  mois  prochain, 
We  ex  fleet  him  next  month. 
Pourquoi  ne  m'  avez-vous  pas  attends? 
Why  did  you  not  wait  for  me  ? 
II  a  dit  en  ma  presence  qu'  il  le  battrait. 
He  said  in  my  presence  that  he  would 

beat  him. 
II  a  fait  abattre  tons  les  arbres  du  chemin, 
He  caused  all  the  trees  of  the  road  to  be 

fiullcd  down. 
Nous  combattimes  toute  la  journee, 
Wq  fought  the  whole  day. 
La  question  a  ete  debattue  hier  au  soir, 
The  question  was  argued  yesterday  evening. 
J'  en  rabattrai  dix  pour  cent, 

I  will  abate  ten  per  cent  on  it. 
Dites-lui  de  descendre^  des  qu'  il  aura  fini, 
Tell  hiiTi  to  come  down,  as  soon  as  he  has 

done. 

II  ne  condescendra  jamais  a  cela. 
He  will  never  comedy  with  that. 
On  a  fait  ybnrfre  toutes  les  cloches. 
They  have  caused  all  the  bells  to  be  molten, 
II  ne  faut  pas  confondre  V  innocent  avec  le 

coupable. 
One  must  not  confound  the  innocent  with 
the  guilty. 


*  Battre  and  its  derivatives  have  a  trifli ag  irregularity  in  their  ortho- 
graphy, as  they  lose  one  t  in  the  three  first  persons  of\the  present  of  the 
Indicative,  and  second  person  singular  of  t^ie  Impera^ve:  Example,  je 
bats,  tu  bats,  il  bat — bats.  Rompre  and  its  derivatives  add  t  for  the  third 
person  singular  of  the  IndicaUve  present:  Ex.  il  rompf,  ccrrompf,  &c. 

VOL.  II.  y 


162 


PHILOSOPHY 


Morfondre^ 
To  chill. 
Tendre, 
To  stretch. 
JEtendre^ 
To  spread. 
Entendre^ 

To  hear. 
Entendre.^ 
To  understand. 

Dependre^ 
To  depend. 
Susfiendre^ 
To  suspend,  > 
to  hang.    5 
Po7idre<f 
To  lay  eggs. 
Corresfiondre, 
To  correspond. 
RefiondrCf 
To  answer. 
Perdre^ 
To  lose. 
Repandrcy 
To  spill. 
RSjiandre, 
To  spread. 
Romfire, 
To  break. 

Corroinfire, 
To  corrupt. 
Interromfire, 
To  interrupt. 
Tondre^ 
To  shear. 
Tordre^ 
To  twist. 
Survcndre, 

To  oversell. 


Ce  vent  du  nord  vous  morfondra, 
This  north-wind  will  cM/  you. 
Tendez  la  corde  dans  la  cour, 
Stretch  the  rope  in  the  yard. 
Etendez  le  linge  dans  le  javdin, 
Sjiread  the  linen  in  the  garden. 
Je  n'  ai  pas  entendu  un  mot  de  ce  qu*  il 
a  dit, 

I  did  not  hear  a  word  of  what  he  said. 

II  entend  parfaitement  bien  le  Fran^ais, 
He  understands  the  French  language  per- 
fectly well. 

Cela  ne  depend  pas  de  moi, 
That  does  not  depend  on  me. 
Suspendez  mon  manteau  a  un  clou, 

Suspend  (or  hang)  my  cloak  on  a  nail. 

Nos  poules  comraencent  deja  a  pondre^ 
Our  hens  already  begin  to  lay  eggs, 
Je  correspondrai  volontiers  avec  lui, 

I  shall  correspond  willingly  with  him. 

II  n*  a  repondu  a  aucune  de  mes  lettres,. 
He  has  answered  none  of  my  letters. 

II  ^  perdu  tout  son  argent  au  jeu, 

He  has  lost  all  his  money  at  play. 

Vous  avez  repandu  du  bouillon  sur  la  table, 

You  have  spilled  some  broth  on  the  table. 

C  est  lui  qui  a  repandu  la  nouvelle, 

It  is  he  who  spread  the  news. 

II  a  eu  le  bras  rompu  en  deux  endroits, 

His  arm  has  been  broken  (or  broke)  in 

two  places. 
Le  luxe  corrompt  les  moeurs  des  nations, 
Luxury  corrupts  the  manners  of  nations. 
II  m'  interrompit  tout  a  coup,  en  disant — 
He  interrupted  me  suddenly,  by  saying — 
Avez-vous  fait  tondre  vos  brebis  ? 
Have  you  had  your  sheep  shorn  ? 
II  a  tordu  phisieurs  branches  de  1'  arbre, 
He  has  twisted  several  branches  of  the  tree. 
II  est  de  r  ioteret  d'  un  marchand  de  ne 

jamais  survendre^ 
It  is  the  interest  of  a  shopkeeper  never  to 

oversell. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  ^  14)3 

SEVENTH  REGULAR  CONJUGATION,  IN  UIRE, 
EXEMPLIFIED  IN  TRADUIRE,  TO   TRANSLATE. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 
To  translate,  Traduire, 

PAST. 
To  have  translated,  AvQir  tradvit, 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

Translating,  Traduisant,  |  Translated,  Tradvit, 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  translate,  I  do  translate  >     r  .    j  . 

or  I  am  translating,        3 
thou  translate st,  tu  traduia. 
he  or  she  translates,  il  ou  elle  traduit, 
one,  any  body.  See.  translates,  on  traduit,      ^ 

PLURAL. 

We  translate,  J\rou8  traduisona. 

you  translate,  vous  traduisez. 

they  translate.  Us  ou  dies  traduisent, 

people,  we,  they,  &c.  translate,  on  traduit. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 


I  did  translate  or 

I  was  translating 
thou  didst  translate,  tu  traduiaais. 
he  did  translate,  il  traduisait, 


>    Je  traduiaaia. 


164  PHILOSOPHY 

TLURAL, 

We  did  translate,  JVbw*  traduisions* 
you  did  translate,  vous  traduisiez, 
they  did  translate.  Us  traduisaient, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

SINGULAR. 

I  translated,  Je  traduisis, 
thou  translatedst,  tu  traduisis, 
he  translated,  il  traduisit. 


We  translated,  Nous  traduisimes. 
you  translated,  vous  traduisites, 
they  translated,  ils  traduisirent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 


I  shall  or  will  "j 

thou  shalt        J.  translate, 

he  shall 


} 


SINGULAR. 

Je  traduirai, 
tu  traduiras, 
il  traduira, 

PLURAL. 


We  shall  or  will  1  |  JVbus  traduirons, 

you  shall  L  translate,      I  vous  traduirez. 

they  shall  j  |  ils  traduiront, 

PAST. 
^    i  have  translated,  J'  ai  traduit,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
I  had  translated,  J'  avais  traduit,  8cc. 

^ST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  translated,  J'  eus  traduit,  Sec. 

PAST   POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  have  translated,  J'  aurai  traduit,  Sec. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


165 


PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

I  have  just  translated,  Je  viens  de  traduire^  &c. 

people,  they,  &c.  have  just  translated,  on  vient  de  traduire, 

FUTURE. 
'^    I  am  to  translate,  Je  dots  traduire,  &c. 
INSTANT   FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  translate,  Je  vazs  traduire,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Translate  (thou)  Traduis. 
let  us  translate,  tradidsons, 
translate,  traduisez, 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 


I  should,  could  or'^ 

thoTshouldst         Wanslate, 
he  should  J 


SINGULAR. 

Je  traduirais. 
tu  tradtdrais, 
il  traduirait. 


PLURAL. 


We  should  "J 

you  should  i.  translate, 

they  should  J 


JV0U8  traduirions, 
VOU8  traduiriez* 
ils  traduiraient. 


PAST. 
I  should  have  translated,  J*  aurais  traduit,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 


That  I  may 

that  thou  mayst  ^  translate, 

that  he  may 


] 


SINGULAR. 


Que  je  traduise, 
que  tu  traduises, 
qu'  //  traduise. 


166 


PHILOSOPPIY 


That  we  may  "J 

that  you  may    K  translate, 

that  they  may  J 


PLURAL. 

Que  nous  traduisions, 
que  votis  traduidez, 
qu'  Us  traauisent* 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 


SlJrCULAR. 


That  I  might        "J 

that  thou  mightst  L  translate, 

that  he  might       J 


Que  je  traduisisse* 
que  tu  traduisisses, 
qu*  il  traduisit. 


That  we  might  1 

Ma/  you  might   V  translate, 

that  they  might  J 


PLURAL. 

Que  nous  traduisissions, 
que  vous  traduisissiez» 
qu*  zV*  traduisissent. 


PAST. 
7%a/  I  may  have  translated,  Sec  Quey'  aie  traduity  &c. 
PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  translated.  Sec.  Que  J'  eusse  traduit,  See. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  TRADUIRE. 


Conduire^ 
To  conduct. 
Econduire, 

To  refuse,  (applied 
to  persons  only). 

Reconduire, 

To  wait  upon  one 
back. 

Construire^ 

To  build. 

Cuire, 

To  bake. 

Recuire, 

To  bake  again. 


Conduisez'le  a  la  ville. 

Conduct  him  to  town. 

Je  lui  avais  fait  une  demande,  mais  il  m* 

a  econduit, 
1  had  asked  him  a  favour,  but  he  has  re- 

fused  m.e. 
Je  la  reconduisis  chez  elle, 

I  waited  upon  her,  back  to  her  house. 

Sa  maison  n'  est  pas  encore  construite. 

His  house  is  not  yet  bidlt. 

Ce  boulanger  cuit  beaucoup  de  pain  tous 

les  jours. 
This  baker  bakes  a  great  deal  of  bread 

every  day. 

II  faut  faire  recuire  cette  viande, 
This  meat  must  be  baked  again. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


167 


Deduire, 
To  deduct. 
Detruire, 

To  destroy. 
JSnduire, 
To  plaster. 
Induire, 
To  excite. 

Jnstruire, 
To  instruct. 
Introduire^ 
To  introduce  or 

to  bring  into. 
Lvire^ 
To  shine. 
Reluire, 
To  glitter. 
Niiire, 
To  hurt  or 

wrong 
Produire, 
To  produce 

Reduire, 
To  reduce. 
Seduire, 
To  seduce* 


to  do 


II  faut  deduire  ce  que  vous  avez  depense, 
You  must  deduct  what  you  have  spent. 
Le  terns  ditruit  les   batimens   les   plus 

solides, 
Time  destroys  the  most  solid  buildings. 
Je  ferai  enduire  les  murailles  de  platre, 

I  will  get  the  walls  filastered. 

Ne  1'  ecoutez  pas,  il  vous  induira  a  mal  faire, 
Do  not  listen  to  him,  he  will  excite  you  to 

do  wrong. 
On  commence  abien  instruire  la  jeunesse, 
They  begin  to  instruct  youth  well. 

II  introduisit  les  ennemis  dans  la  place. 

He  brought  the  enemy  into  the  place. 

Le  soleil  n'  a  pas  lui  (no  t)  aujourd'  hui, 

The  sun  did  not  shine  to  day. 

Tout  ce  qui  reluit  n'  est  pas  or, 

All  that  glitters  is  not  gold. 

Je  n'  ai  jamais  nui  (no  t)  a  personne, 

I  have  never  done  ivrong  to  any  body. 

Mon  argent  ne  me  jiroduit  aucun  interet, 
My  money  does  not  produce  me  any  in- 
terest. 
Cette  famille  est  r6duite  a  la  mendicite, 
This  family  is  reduced  to  beggary. 

II  la  seduisit  par  ses  promeses. 
He  seduced  her  by  his  promises. 


EIGHTH  AND    LAST 

REGULAR  CONJUGATION,  IN  INDRE, 
^'  EXEMPLIFIED  IN  CRMMDRE,  TO  FEAR. 

INFINITIVE. 


PRESENT. 

To  fear,  Craindre, 


PAST. 

I  To  have  feared,  Jvoir  craint. 


PARTICIPLES. 

PRE8ENT.  PAST. 

.Fearing,  Crargnam.  \  Feared,  Craint. 


168  PHILOSOPHY 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

I  fear,  I  do  fear  or  I  am  fearing,  Je  crains, 

thou  fearest,  tu  crains, 

he  or  she  fears,  il  ou  elle  craint. 

one,  any  body,  &c.  fears,  on  craint, 

PLURAL. 

We  fear,  JSfous  craignons, 
you  fear,  nous  craignez, 
they  fear,  ils  ou  elles  craignent, 
people,  they,  Sec.  fear,  on  craint. 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


I  did  fear  or       ^   r        •        • 
T  r      •        r  ^e  craignais, 

I  was  fearing,  3  ^ 

thou  didst  fear,  tu  craignais. 

he  did  fear,  //  craignait. 


We  did  fear,  JVous  craignions, 
you  did  fear,  vous  craigniez, 
they  did  fear,  ils  craignaient. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL 

I  feared,  Je  craignis. 
thou  fearedst,  tu  craignis, 
he  feared,  il  craignit. 


We  feared,  JSTous  craignimes, 
you  feared,  vous  craignites, 
they  feared,  ils  craignirent. 


PRESENT  POSTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

I  shall  or  will  fear,  Je  craindrai, 
thou  shalt  fear,  tu  craindras, 
he  shall  fear,  il  craindra, 

PLURAL. 

We  shall  fear,  J\fous  craindrons, 
you  shall  fear,  -vous  craindrez, 
they  shall  fear,  ils  craindront, 

PAST. 

I  have  feared,  J'  ai  craint,  Sec. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  169 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
I  had  feared,  J^  avais  craint,  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 
I  had  feared,  J'  eus  craint^  &c. 

PAST  POSTERIOR. 
I  shall  have  feared,  /*  aurai  craint^  &c. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

I  have  just  feared,  Je  viens  de  craindrey  See. 
one  has  just  feared,  on  vient  de  craindre, 

FUTURE. 
I  am  to  fear,  Je  dots  craindre^  Sec 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 
I  am  going  to  fear,  Je  vais  craindre,  Sec. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Fear  (thou),  Grains, 
let  us  fear,  craignons, 
fear,  craignez. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 


I  should  fear,  Je  craindrais. 
thou  shouldst  fear,  tu  craindrai&t 
he  should  fear,  il  craindrait. 


We  should  fear,  JVous  craindrions, 
you  should  fear,  vous  craindriez, 
they  should  fear,  iU  craindraient* 
▼OL.   II  z 


tTO  PHILOSOPHY 

PAST. 
I  should  have  feared,  J'  aurais  craint^  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  may  fear,  Que^V  craigne. 
that  thou  mayst  fear,  que  tu  craignes, 
that  he  may  fear,  qu'  il  craigne. 


That  we  may  fear,  Que  nous  craignions, 
that  you  may  fear,  que  vous  craigniez. 
that  they  may  fear,  qu'  Us  craigncnt, 

PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

SINGULAR. 

That  I  might  fear,  Que  je  craignisse. 
that  thou  mightst  fear,  que  tu  craignisses, 
that  he  might  fear,  qu'  il  craignft. 


That  we  might  fear.  Que  nous  craignissions, 
that  you  might  fear,  que  vous  craignissiez. 
that  they  might  fear,  qu'  ils  craignissent, 

PAST. 
That  I  may  have  feared,  Que  j'  aie  craint^  &c. 

PAST  ANTERIOR. 
That  I  might  have  feared.  Que  /  eusse  craint,  &c. 

THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
AEE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  CRAINBRE. 
II  m'  a  astreint  a  le  faire, 


Astrnndre^ 

To  oblige, 

to  force 


.1 


He  has  obliged  {or  forced  J  m.e  to  do  it. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


in 


Ceindrey 
To  gird. 
JEnceindre, 
To  inclose. 

Contraindrey 
To  force. 
£nfrdndrey 
To  infringe. 
Feindrey 
To  pretend. 
Joindrcy 
To  join. 
Dejoindrey 
To  disjoin. 

Enjoindrey 

To  order. 

Pehidrey 

To  draw,  to  paint. 

*      Restrdndrcy 
To  limit. 
Teindrcy 
To  dye. 
iSe  deteindrcy 
To  lose  colour. 

Eteindrcy 
To  put  out. 
AtteindrCy 
To  reach. 


Vous  ne  savez  pas  ceindre  une  epee, 
You  do  not  know  how  to^/rc?on  a  sword. 
II  a  fait  enceindre  ses  champs  de  fosses, 
He  caused  his  fields  to  be  inclosed  with 

dlitches. 
Je  le  contraignis  k  m'  obeir, 
\  forced  him  to  obey  me. 
lis  ont  les  premiers  enfrdnt  le  traite, 
They  have  first  infringed  the  treaty. 
Zt,feignais  de  ne  point  1'  ecouter, 
I  pretended  not  to  listen  to  him. 
J'  ai  entendu  dire  qu'  il  n'  avait  pu  lejoindrey 
I  heard  that  he  could  not  Join  him. 
Ces  planches  sont  toutes  dejointesy 
These  boards  are  quite  disjoined  (or  dis- 
jointed), 
Je  lui  enjoignis  de  garder  le  silence, 

I  ordered  liim  to  be  silent. 

II  a  /leint  toute  la  famille, 

He  has  draivn  (or  painted)  the  whole  fa- 
mily, i 

Je  r  ai  restreint  un  peu  dans  sa  depense, 

I  have  limited  him  a  httle  in  his  expenses. 

Je  ferai  teindre  cet  habit  en  noir, 

I  will  have  this  coat  dyed  black. 

Ne  craignez-vous  pas  qu'  il  ne  se  dSteigne? 

Are  you  not  afraid  that  it  will  lose  its  co- 
lour ? 

N'  eteignez  pas  encore  la  chandelle, 

Do  not  yet  put  the  candle  out, 

Je  pe  saurais  1'  atteindrey 

I  cannot  reach  it. 


\7i 


PHILOSOPHY 


THE  FOLLOWING  ARE  THE 
EIGHT  CLASSES  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

FIRST  CLASS,  AS  OFFRIR,  TO  OFFER. 

INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  offer,  Offrir.     Offenng,  Offrant.     Offered,  Oifert. 


INDICATIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

Je  tu      il  oil  elle, 

y  offr-e,  es,  e. 

offr-ais,  ais,  ait. 

offr-is,  is,  it. 

offr-irai,  ras,  ra. 


PLURAL. 

JVbus  vous    Us  ou  elks, 

Offr-ons,  ez,  ent. 

offr-ions,  iez,  aient. 

offr-imes,  ites,  irent. 

offr-irons,  irez,  iront. 


IMPERATIVE. 
Offre,  I  OfFr-ons,  ez. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Offri-rais,     rais,       rait.      |  Offr-irions,       iriez,     raient. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Offr-e,  es,  e.  I  Offr-ions,  iez,         ent. 

offr-isse>       isses,     It.         |  offr-issions^       issiez,    issent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  OFFRIR. 


MSsoffrir, 


Vous  n*  aiirez  pas  ce  drap,  vous  en  me- 
soffrez  trop, 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


.73 


To  undervalue. 

Coiwrir, 

To  cover. 

Decouvrir, 
To  discover. 
JRecouvrir^ 
To  cover  up. 
Ouvrir, 
To  open. 
JEntr*  ouvrir, 

To  open  a  little. 

Rouvrir^ 

To  open  again. 

Souffrir^ 

To  suffer. 


You  shall  not  have  this  cloth,  you  under- 

value  it  too  much. 
Les  charpentiers  n'  ont  pas  encore  convert 

ma  maison, 
The  carpenters  have  not  yet  covered  my 

house. 
On  a  decouvert  son  dessein  a  tems, 
They  have  discovered  his  design  in  time. 
Recouvrez-\G,  ou  bien  il  se  refroidira, 
Cover  it  w/s  or  else  it  will  get  cold. 
Je  vous  defends  de  lui  ouvrir  la  porte, 
I  forbid  you  to  open  the  door  to  him. 
J'  avais  laisse  une  des  fenetres  de  la  salle 

cntr'  ouvertCy 
I  had  left  one  of  the  parlour  windows  o/ien 

a  little, 
Je  n'  ai  jamais  pu  r ouvrir  le  buffet, 
I  could  never  often  the  cupboard  again, 
Vous  avez  eu  tort  de  souffrir  une  pareille 

insolence. 
You  were  wrong  to  suffer  such  a  piece  of 

insolence. 


SECOND  CLASS,  AS  COURIR,  TO  RUN. 
INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  run,  Courir.      Rmnningy  Courant.     Run,  Couru. 


INDICATIVE. 

SINGULAR 

. 

PLURAL. 

Je 

tu 

// 

ou  elle. 

M)U8 

vous  iU 

QU  elles 

Cou-rs, 

rs. 

rt. 

Cour-ons, 

ez. 

ent. 

cour-ais, 

mis. 

rait. 

cour-ions, 

iez, 

aient. 

cour-us, 

us. 

ut. 

cour-iimes, 

Cites, 

urent. 

cour-rai, 

ras. 

ra. 

cour-rons, 

rez, 

ront. 

Cour-i-ais, 


IMPERATIVE. 
Cours.  I    Cour-ons,  ez. 

CONDITIONAL. 

rais,       rait.     |   Cour-rions,       riez,       raient. 


174 


PHILOSOPHY 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Je 

Cour-e, 
cour-usse, 


SINGULAR. 

tu       ilonelle. 


es, 
usses, 


e. 

ut. 


PLURAL. 

Mu8  vous    lis  ou  elles, 

Cour-ions,         iez,         ent. 
cour-ussions,     ussiez,    ussent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  COURIR. 


Accourir, 
To  run  to. 
Concourir^ 
To  concur. 

Discourlr^ 
To  discourse. 

Encourir, 
To  incur. 

Parcourivy 

To  over-run. 

Recourir^ 

To  have  recourse 

to. 
Secdurir^ 
To  succour. 


II  accourut  en  hate  a  son  secours, 

He  ran  in  haste  to  his  assistance. 

Tout  a  concouru  a  sa  perte, 

Every  thing  concurred  to  his  loss  {or  dis- 
advantage). 

II  discourut  sur  1'  immortalite  de  1*  ame, 

He  discoursed  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul. 

II  a  encouru  la  peine  prononcee  par  la  loi, 

He  has  incurred  the  penalty  pronounced 
by  the  law. 

II  fiarcourra  toute  1'  Europe, 

He  will  over-run  all  Europe. 

Je  ne  recourrai  pas  a  lui  dans  mon  malheur, 

I  will  not  have  recourse  to  him  in  my  mis- 
fortune. 

II  faut  secourir  ses  amis  dans  le  besoin, 
We  must  succour  our  friends  in  want. 


THIRD  CLASS,  AS  CONKAITRE,  TO  KNOW. 
INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  knotV)  Connaitre.     Knowing.)  Connaissant.     Knoivn^  Connu* 
INDICATIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

Je  tu       il  OU  elle. 

Conn-ais,  ais,        ait. 

conn-aissais,  aissais,  aissait. 

conn-us,  us,  ut. 

Gonn-aitrai,  aitras,    aitra. 


PLURAL. 

Abws  vous     its  ou  ellea. 

Conn-aisso.ns,  aissez,   aissent. 

conn-aissions,  aissiez,  aissaient. 

conn-umes,  utes,      urent. 

conn-aitrons,  aitrez,   aitront. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


175 


IMPERATIVE. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Jt  tu     il  ou  elk,  Mus  vous   ils  ou  eUes* 

Conn^is,  I  Conn-aissons,  aissez, 

CONDITIONAL. 

Conn-aitrais,  aitrais,  aitrait.  |  Conn-aitrions,  aitriez,  aitraient. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Conn-aisse,     aisses,    aisse.   I  Conn-aissions,  aissiez,  aissent. 
conn-usse,       usses,    ut.        |  conn-ussions,    ussiez,  ussent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  CONNAITRE. 


Crotire, 
To  grow. 
j^ccroitre. 

To  increase. 

Z) ecroitrCy 
To  decrease. 
Faraiire, 
To  appear. 
Dis/iaraftre, 
To  disappear. 

Co?nf2arattre, 
To  appear. 
Meconnaitre, 


Not  to  know 
again,  to  for 
Reconnattrey 
To  remember 
Reconnaitre^ 


w      > 

•get.  5 


To  acknowledge, 


Cette  pluie  a  bien  fait  croitre  les  bles, 
This  rain  has  made  the  com^row  very  fast. 
II  a  par  son  economie  accru  de  beaucoup 

son  revenu, 
He  has  by  his  economy  increased  his  in- 
come much. 
Les  jours  commencent  d^ja  a  decroitre, 
The  days  begin  already  to  decrease. 
Dieu  apparut  plusieurs  fois  d  Moise, 
God  appeared  several  times  to  Moses. 
II  disparut  aussitot  de  la  ville, 
He    immediately    disappeared   from    the 

town. 
II  n'  a  pas  ose  comparaitre  devant  ses  juges, 
He  did  not  dare  to  oppearhtiove.  his  judges. 
II  est  devenu  si  gros  que  tout  le  monde  1* 

a  fneconnu, 
He  is  become  so  fat  that  no  body  k-new 

him  again, 
Je  r  ai  reconnu  du  premier  abord, 
I  remembered  him  at  first  sight. 
Toute  r  Europe  reconnut  Y  independancc 

des  Etats-Unis, 
All  Europe  acknowledged  the  independence 

of  the  United  States. 


176 


PHILOSOPHY 


FOURTH  CLASS,  AS  METTRE,  TO  PUT. 
INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  put,  Mettre.     Putting,  Mettant.     Put,  Mis. 


INDICATIVE. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL* 

• 

Je 

tu      il 

ou  elk. 

JVbus 

vous 

Us 

ou  elks 

Me-ts, 

ts, 

t. 

Mett-ons, 

ez, 

ent. 

mett-ais, 

ais, 

ait. 

mett-ions. 

iez, 

aient. 

m-is, 

is, 

it. 

m-imes, 

ites. 

irent. 

^lett-rai, 

ras, 
Mets. 

ra. 
iMPERi 

mett-rons, 

\TIVE. 
1  Mett-ons, 

rez, 
ez« 

ront. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Mett-rais,        rais,       rait.       |  Mett-rions,       riez,      raieht. 


Mett-e, 
r»-isse. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


es, 
isses, 


e. 

it. 


Mett-ions, 
m-issions, 


lez,         ent. 
issiez,     issent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  METTRE. 

Admettre, 


To  admit. 

Commettre, 
To  commit. 

Coinpromettre, 

To  compromise,  ^ 
to  expose  one.  5 


II  a  ete  adjnis  dans  la  Societe  Royale  de 

Londres, 
He  has  been  admitted  into  the  Royal  Society 

of  London. 
Vous  commites  une  grande  faute  en  le  lui 

disant. 
You  committed  a  great  fault  by  telling  it  to 

him. 
Je  ne  vous  comfiromettrai  pas,  comptez  sur 

ma  parole, 
I   will  not  expose  you,   depend    on  my 

word. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


177 


lie  dSmcttre^ 
I  To  resign. 
S'  entremeCtrey 
To  mediate. 
jPermettre, 
To  permit. 
Ometire, 

To  omit. 

Prometire, 

\  To  promise. 

Remettrey 
To  deliver. 

Remettre^ 
To  replace. 
Soumettre, 

To  submit. 

Transmettre^ 

To  transmit. 


II  se  demit  aussitot  de  sa  charge, 

He  immediately  resigned  his  office. 

Je  me  suis  entremis  pour  les  accorder, 

I  mediated  to  make  them  agree. 

Lui  avez-vous  fiermis  de  venir  ? 

Did  you  permit  him  to  come  ? 

Je  n'  ai  omis  aucune  des  particularites  de 
cette  affaire, 

I  omitted  none  of  the  particularities  of  this 
business. 

On  lui  a  promis  une  belle  recompense,  s'  il 
reussissait, 

A  handsome  reward  has  been  promised 
him,  if  he  succeeded. 

Lui  avez-vous  remis  le  paquet  &  les  plumes  ? 

Have  you  delivered  him  the  bundle  and 
the  quills  ? 

Avez-vous  remis  les  livres  a  leur  place  ? 

Have  you  replaced  the  books  ? 

Je  ne  me  soumettrai  jamais  a  des  condi- 
tions si  inhumaines. 

I  will  never  submit  to  such  brutal  condi- 
tions. 

Les  sciences  nous  ont  ete  tranamises  par 
les  Grecs  &c  par  les  Romains. 

The  sciences  have  been  transmitted  to  us 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 


)  FIFTH  CLASS,  AS  PREJVDRE,  TO  TAKE. 

INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  take,  Prendre.     Taking,  Prenant.      Taken,  Pris. 


INDICATIVE. 

SINGULAF 

. 

PLURAL. 

Je 

tu 

il 

ou  elle. 

JVous            vous 

ils 

ou  elles 

Pren-ds, 

ds. 

d. 

Pren-ons,       ez. 

ent. 

pren-ais, 

ais. 

ait. 

pren-ions,       iez. 

aient. 

pr-is, 

is, 

it. 

pr-imes,          ites, 

irent. 

prend-rai, 

ras, 

ra. 

prend-rons,    rez. 

ront. 

VOL.  II. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Frends.  |     Prcn-ons, 

A  a 


in 


PHILOSOPHY 


CONDITIONAL. 


SINGULAR. 

Je  tu       il  ou  elle, 

Prend-rais,      rais,       rait. 


JLTJRAL. 

K(ms  V0U8  Us  011  elles, 

I    Prend-rions,  riez,       raient. 


Prenn-e, 
pr-isse, 


es, 
isses, 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pren-ions, 
pr-issions, 


lez,         nent. 
issiez,     issent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE   PRENDRE. 


yljifirendre, 

To  learn. 

Comprendre^ 
To  understand. 
Desafiprendre, 
To  unlearn. 
Emtreiirendre, 
To  undertake. 
Se  mejirendre^ 
To   make    a  mis- 
take. 
Reprcndre^ 

To  take  back. 
Refirendre^ 

To  blame,  to  cen- 
sure. 
Surjirendre, 

To  surprise. 


Combien   y  a-t-il    que   vous  apfirenez  \t 

Francais  ? 
How  long  have  you  been  learning  French  ? 
Avez-vous  comfiris  ce  qu'  il  a  dit  ? 
Did  you  understand  what  he  said  ? 
Vous  desafifirenez  au  lieu  d'  apprendre. 
You  unlearn  instead  of  learning. 
Vous  entrefirenez  trop  de  choses  a  la  fois. 
You  undertake  too  many  things  at  once. 
Vous  vous  etes  mefiris  sur  son  compte. 
Y  ou  have  made  a  mistake  about  him. 

J'  ai  refiris  mon  argent  Sc  lui  ses  marchan- 
dises, 

I  took  my  money  back  and  he  his  goods. 

II  a  ete  refiris  severement  par  un  conseil 
de  guerre, 

He  was  severely  blamed  (or  censured)  by 

a  court  martial. 
Vous  nae  surfirenez  d'  agir  comme  vous 

faites. 
You  surprise  me  to  act  as  you  do. 


SIXTH  CLASS,  AS  FAIRE,  TO  DO  OR  TO  MAKE. 

INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  do,  Faire.     Doing,  Fesant.     Done,  Fait. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


17^ 


INDICATIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Je 

tu 

il 

ou  elk. 

JV0U8 

vous 

Us 

ou  eiles 

F-ais, 

ais, 

ait. 

F-esonSj 

aites, 

ont. 

fes-ai^j 

ais, 

ait. 

fes-ions, 

iez, 

aient. 

f-is, 

is, 

it. 

f-imes, 

ites, 

irent. 

fe-rai, 

ras, 

a. 

fer-ons, 

ez, 

ont. 

Fe-rais, 


Fass-e, 
f-isse, 


Fais. 


rais, 


es, 
isses, 


IMPERATIVE. 


I    F-esons,         aites. 


CONDITIONAL. 

rait.       I    Fe-rions,       riez,        raient. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

e.  I     Fass-ions,      iez,         ent. 

it.  f-issions,        issiez,     issent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  "^ERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE  FAIRE, 


Contrefaire^ 

To  counterfeit. 

Defaircy 
To  undo. 
Defaire, 

To  defeat. 

Refaire^ 

To  do  again. 

Satisfairey 

To  please. 

Sotisfaire^ 

To  satisfy. 

Surfaire^ 

To  ask  too  much. 


II  a  ete  pendu  pour  avoir  contrcfait  des 

billets  de  banque. 
He  was  hanged  for  having  counterfeited 

bank  notes. 
Vous  defaites  tout  ce  que  je  fais, 
You  undo  all  that  I  do. 
Nous  dejimes    T  ennemi  avec    un   grand 

carnage. 
We  defeated  the  enemy  with  great  slaugh- 
ter. 
II  est  inutile  de  le  refaire. 
It  is  useless  to  do  it  again, 
C  est  un  homme  qui  satisfait  tous  ceux 

qui  ont  affaire  avec  lui, 
He  is  a  man  \who  pleases  all  those   who 

deal  with  him. 
II  n'  a  satisfait  aucun  de  ses  creanciers, 
He  has  not  satisfied  any  of  his  creditors. 
Ce  marchand  vous  a  surfait  de  moitie, 
This  shopkeeper  asked  you  too  much  by 

half. 


180 


PHILOSOPHY 


SEVENTH  CLASS,  AS  ECRIRE,  TO  WRITE, 
INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

To  write ^  ecrire.      Writing,  ecrivant.      Ifritten,  ecrit. 


INDICATIVE. 


SINGULAR 

. 

PLURAL. 

Jc 

tu 

il 

ou  efle. 

JVbus 

vous 

ils 

ou  elles 

Ecri-p, 

s, 

t. 

Ecri-vons, 

vez. 

vent. 

ecriv-ais, 

ais, 

ait. 

ecriv-ions, 

iez, 

aient. 

ecriv-is, 

is, 

it'. 

ecriv-imes, 

ites. 

irent. 

ecri-rai, 

ras, 

ra. 

ecri-rons, 

rez, 

ront. 

Ecri-rais, 


Ecriv-e, 
^criv-isse, 


Ecris. 


rais, 


es, 
isses, 


IMPERATIVE. 

I  Ecriv-ons, 

CONDITIONAL. 

rait.        I  Ecri-rions, 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


ez. 


riez. 


raient. 


Ecriv-ions,       iez,         ent. 


THE  FOLLOWING  VERBS 
ARE  CONJUGATED  LIKE   ECRIRE 

Circonscrire, 


To  limit,  to  cir- 
cumscribe. 

D  ecrire^ 

To  describe. 

Jnscrire, 

To  set  down, 
to  enter. 

Prescrire, 

To  prescribe. 


Dieu  ne  se  peut  circonscrire  ni paries  lieux 

ni  par  les  terns, 
God  cannot  be  circumscribed  either  by  place 

or  time. 
II  a  fort  bien  decrit  ce  pays, 
He  has  described  this  country  very  well. 
Je  vous  inscrirai  sur  mon  livre, 

I  will  set  you  doivn  (or  enter)  on  my  book. 

Frescrivez-moi  ce  que  vous  voulez  que  je 

fasse, 
Prescribe  to  me  what  you  wish  me  to  do. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


SI 


Froscrire, 

To  proscribe. 

Recrire, 

To  write  again. 

Souscrire, 

To  subscribe. 

Transcrire, 
To  transcribe. 


II  a  6te  proscrit  pendant  la  tyrannic   de 

Robespierre, 
He  was  proscribed  during  the  tyranny  of 

Robespierre. 
Dites  au  commis  de  lui  recrire^ 
Tell  the  clerk  to  write  to  him  again. 
Je  souscrivis  pour  dix  exemplaires  de  cet 

ouvrage, 
I  subscribed  for  ten  copies  of  this  work. 
Avez-vous  transcrit  toutes  mes  lettres  ? 
Did  you  transcribe  all  my  letters  ? 


EIGHTH  AND  LAST  CLASS, 
EXEMPLIFIED  IN  DIRE,  TO  SAY  OR  TO  TELL. 

INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES. 
To  say,  Dire.     Saying,  Disant.     Said,  Dit. 


INDICATIVE. 

SINGULAR 

. 

PLURAL. 

Je 

tu 

il 

ou  elle. 

JV0U8 

voua 

il3 

OM  elUs 

Di-s, 

s. 

t. 

Di-sons, 

tes, 

sent. 

dis-ais, 

ais, 

ait. 

dis-ions, 

iez, 

aient. 

di-s, 

s, 

t. 

d-imes, 

ites, 

irent. 

di-rai, 

ras, 

ra. 

di-rons, 

rez, 

ront. 

Di-rai  s, 


IMPERATIVE. 
Dis.  I  Di-sons, 

CONDITIONAL, 
rais,        rait.       |  Di-rions, 


tes. 


riez,        raient. 


Dis-e, 

d-isse. 


isses, 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


e. 

it. 


Dis-ions, 
d-issions, 


lez,         cnt. 
issiez,     issent. 


inoi 


PHILOSOPHY 


The  following  are  conjugated  like  Dire,  except  the  2d 
person  plural  of  the  Indicative  present  and  the  saipe 
person  of  the  Imperative  of  the  seven  first  Verbs,  where 
isez  instead  of  ites  is  the  termination. 


Con/ire., 

To  pickle. 
Coil/ire^ 

To  preserve. 

Contredircy 
To  contradict. 
Se  dedire, 

To  disown, 
to  recant. 
Interdire, 
To  forbid. 

Medire, 
To  slander. 
Fredire, 
To  foretell. 
Redire, 
To  tell  again, 
to  repeat. 


Avez-vous  con^t  des  concombres  cette  an- 

nee-ci  ? 
Did  you  pickle  any  cucumbers  this  year  ? 
Elle  est  occupee  maintenant  a  confire  du 

fruit, 
She  is  now  busy  about  preserving  fruit. 
Vous  me  contredisez  toujours. 
You  always  contradict  me. 
Les  temoins  se  sont  dedits  de  ce  qu'  ils 

avaient  dit  d'abord. 
The  witnesses  have  disowned  (or  recanted) 

what  they  had  said  first. 
On  lui  a  interdit  T  entree  de  la  ville, 
They  have  forbid  him  from  entering  the 

city. 
Vous   inedisez  trop  de  votre  prochain. 
You  slander  your  neighbour  too  much, 
Je  lui  ai  predit  ce  qui  lui  est  arrive, 
I  hsiVt  foretold  him  what  has  befallen  him. 
Redites  ce  que  vous  avez  entendu, 
Repeat  (or  tell  again)  what  you  have  heard. 


OF  THE   IRREGULAR   VER^S   THAT  COULD 
NOT  BE  CLASSED. 


WE  present  the  scholar  with  the  respective  conjuga- 
tions of  those  Verbs  already  mentioned,  that,  from  their 
extreme  irregularity,  would  not  admit  of  being  classed 
among  the  Verbs,  whose  conjugations  we  have  just  ex- 
hibited. In  order  to  take  up  as  little  room  as  possible, 
we  shall  only  give  the  tenses  that  are  chiefly  formed  by 
a  deviation  from  analogy  ;  of  each  of  those  in  which  this 
law  is  observed,  we  need  only  mention  the  first  person, 
as  the  pupil  will  certainly  be  able,  from  the  knowledge  he 
has  now  acquired  of  the  French  conjugation,  to  supply  the 
persons  omitted. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


183 


Acquerir,  to  acquire^ 
acquerant,  acquis. 


Assaillir,  to  assault^ 
assaillant,  assailli. 


rj' acqu-iers,  iers,  iert; 

<  nous  acqu-erons,  ez,  acqui- 

|_     erent. 

J'  acquerais.— J'  acquis. 
J'  acquerrai. — J'  acquerrais. 

TQue  J*  acqu-iere,  ieres,  iere ; 
■<  que  nous  acqu-erions,  eriez,- 

(^     ierent. 
Que  j'  acquisse. 

Are  conjugated  alike  ; 
Conquerir,  to  conquer* 
requerir,  to  require, 
s'  enquerir,    to  inquire,      Ex. 

Je  me  suis  enquis  de  sa  sante. 

I  inquired  after  his  health. 


J'  assaill-e,  es,  e  ; 

nous  assaill-ons,  ez,  ent. 

J'  assaillais. — J'  assaillis. 
J'  assaillirai. — J'  assaillirais. 
Que  j'  assaill-e,  es  e  ; 
que  nous  assaill-ions,  iez,  ent. 

Que  j'  assaillisse. 

/*  conjugated  alike; 
TressaiUir,  to  start,     Ex. 
II  tressaillit  de  peur, 
He  started  for  fear. 


S'  assoir,  to  sit  down^ 
s*  assoyant,  assis. 


Boire,  to  drink^ 
buvant,  bu. 


f  Je  m'  assois,  tu  t'  assois,  il  s' 

I       assoit ; 
<{  nous  nous   assoyons,    vous 

I      vous  assoyez,  ils  s'  assoi- 

L     ent. 

Je  m'  assoyais. — Je  m'  assis. 
Je  m'  assoirai. — Je  m'  assoirais. 

fQue  je  m'  ass-oie,  oies,  oie; 
-<  que  nous   nous   ass-oyions, 

(^     oyiez,  oient. 
Que  je  m'  assisse. 

Are  conjugated  alike  ; 
Se  rassoir,  to-sit  donvn  agaiii, 
sursoir,  to  adjourn  or  fiOHthone 

(a  law  term). 


Je  bois,  tu  bois,  il  boit ; 

nous  buv-ons,  ez,  boivent. 

Je  buvais. — Je  bus. 

Je  boirai. — Je  boirais. 

Que  je  boiv-e,  es,  e ; 

que  nous  buv-ions,  iez,  boivent. 

Que  je  busse. 


184 


PHILOSOPHY 


Bouillir,  to  boil^ 
bouillant,  bouilli. 


Conclure,  to  conclude. 
concluant,  conclu. 


C  Je  bous,  tu  bous,  il  bout; 

\  nous  bouill-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  bouillais. — Je  bouillis. 
Je  bouillirai. — Je  bouillirais. 

5  Que  je  bouill-e,  es,  e  ; 

\  que  nous  bouill-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  bouillisse. 

N.  B.  This  Verb,  as  well  as 
its  derivative  rehoviUir^  to  boil 
again,  is  seldom  used  except 
in  the  /w/?mV2Tye  or  third  person 
of  its  tenses :  to  supply  the 
persons  corresponding  to  the 
English  we  employ  the  Verb 
/aire:  Ex.  I  6oz7  that,  Jtfais 
bouillir  cela. 


CJe 
^no 


concl-us,  us,  ut ; 
nous  conclu-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  concluais. — Je  conclus. 
Je  conelurai. — Je  conclurais. 


CQue  je  conclu-e,  es,  e; 
I  que  nous  conclu-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  conclusse. 

IC?^  Exclure  its  only  deri- 
vative may  make  in  the  Past 
Participle  either  exclu  or  ex- 
clus  for  the  masculine,  and  of 
course  exclue  or  excluse  for 
the  feminine. 


Coudre,  tc  sew^ 
cousant,  cousu. 


Fair,  to  jly^ 
fuyant,  fui. 


Oe 
^noi 


cou-ds,  ds,  d ; 
nous  cous-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  cousais. — Je  cousis. 
Je  coudrai. — Je  coudrais. 
C  Que  je  cous-e,  es,  e  ; 
\  que  nous  cous-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  cousisse. 

Note,  Decoudre,  to  uns^iv ; 
and  recoudre,  to  sew  again  j  i\.vQ 
conjugated  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 


Je  fu-is,  is,  it ; 

nous  fu-yons,  yez,  lent. 

Je  fuyais. — Je  fuis.* 

Je  fuirai. — Je  fuirais. 

Que  je  fuy-e,  es,  e  ; 

que  nous  fuy-ions,  iez,  fuient. 

Que  je  fuisse.* 

*  Instead  of  using  ^Vy^/z*  and 
gtie  Je  fuisse^  we  say  now  a- 
days  je  pria  la  fuite  and  que 
je  firisse  la  Jhdte, 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


185 


Hair,  to  hate^ 
haissant,  hai. 


Lire,  to  ready 
lisant,  lu. 


r  Je  hai-s,  tu  hai-s,  il  hai-t.  C  Je  1-is, 
<  Nous  haiss-ons,  vous  haiss-  \  nous  lis 
(^     ez,  lis  haiss-ent. 


IS,  It  J 

lis-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  lisais. — Je  lus. 
Je  lirai. — Je  lirais. 
The  irregularity  of  this  Verb  K  Que  je  lis-e,  es,  e  ; 
is  only  in  the  three  Jirst  per-  \  que  nous  lis-ions,  iez,  ent. 


sons  singular  of  the  Indicative, 
and  the  second  sinp^ular  of  the 
Imfierative,  in  which  it  is  de- 
prived of  the  dots  placed  over 
its  i.  As  to  the  other  tenses, 
it  is  conjugated  like  fiunir^ 


Que  je  lusse. 

Derivatives, 
Elire,  to  elect, 
Relire,  to  read  again. 


Moudre,  to  grinds 
moulant,  moulu. 


Mourir,  to  die^ 
mourant,  mort. 


J  Je  mou-ds,  ds,  d  ; 

\  nous  moul-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  moulais. — Je  moulus. 
Je  moudrai. — Je  moudrais. 

C  Que  je  moul-e,  es,  e  ; 

\  que  nous  moul-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  moulusse. 

Derivatives, 
Emoudre,  to  whet, 
Reraoudre,  t9  grind  again. 


C  Je  meur-s,  s,  t ; 

\  nous  mour-ons,  ez,  meurent. 

Je  mourais. — Je  mourus. 

Je  mourrai. — Je  mourrais. 
"Que  je  meur-e,  es,  e  ; 

que  nous  mour-ions,  iez, 
meurent. 

Que  je  mourusse. 

This  Verb   is   sometimes 
used  rejlectirvely,  as  se  mourir, 
to  be  dying,    Ex.  Je  me  meurs, 
/  am  dying. 


VOL.    II 


9  b 


186 


PHILOSOPHY 


Mouvoir,  to  move, 
mouvant,  mu. 


Naitre,  to  be  born  or  to  arise, 
naissant,  ne. 


C  Je  meu-s,  s,  t ; 

l  nous  mouv-ons,  ez,  meuvent. 
Je  m  >uvais. — Je  mus« 
Je  mouvrai. — Je  mouvrais. 

TQue  je  meu-ve,  ves,  ve  ; 
<  que    nous   mouv-ions,    iez, 

(^     meuvent. 
Que  je  musse. 

Derivative* 

T^  .      C  ;o  move, 

Emouvoir,  ^^^^^.^J^_ 


IC  Je  nai-s,  s,  t ; 
\  nous  naiss-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  naissais. — Je  naquis. 
Je  naitrai. — Je  naitrais. 
C  Que  je  naiss-e,  es,  e  ; 
\  que  nous  naiss-ionS)  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  naquisse. 

Its  derivative  renaitre,  to 
rise  again,  is  defective  in  the 
past  participle  and  present  an- 
terior of  the  Indicative, 


Plaire,  to  please, 
plaisant,  plu. 


Pleuvoir,  to  rain, 
pleuvant,  plu, 


5  Je  plais,  tu  plais,  il  plait ; 

^nous  plais-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  plaisais. — Je  plus. 
Je  plairai. — Je  plairais. 

C  Que  je  plais-e,  es,  e  ; 

\  que  nous  plais-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  plusse. 

Are  conjugated  alike, 
Deplaire,  to  disJUease, 
Taire,  to  conceal. 
Se  taire,  to  be  silent. 


II  pleut. 

il  pleuvait. 

il  plut. 

il  pleuvra. 

il  pleuvrait. 

qu'  il  pleuve* 

qu'  il  plut. 

il  a  plu. — II  avait  plu,  &c. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


J87 


Pouvoir,  to  be  able^ 
pouvant,  pu. 


Resoudre,  to  resolve^ 
resolvant,  resolu. 


rje  p-uis,  eux,  eut; 

<  nous  p-ouvons,   ouvez,   eu- 

(_      vent. 

Je  pouvais. — Je  pus. 
Je  pourrai — Je  pourrais; 

C  Que  je  puiss-e,  es,  e  ; 

\  que  nous  puiss-ions,  iez,  ent. 
que  je  pusse. 

This  Verb  can  have  no  /m- 
fierative. 


C  Je  res-ous,  ous,  out ; 
^nous  resolv-ons,  ez,  ent. 

Je  r^solvais. — Je  resolus. 

Je  resoudrai. — Je  resoudrais. 
cQue  je  resolv-e,  es,  e  ; 
Cque  nous  resolv-ions,  iez,  ent. 

Que  je  resolusse. 

Absoudre,  to  absolve^ 

Dissoudre,  to  dissolve^ 
are  conjugated   in  tne    same 
manner,   the    Participle    Past 
excepted  which  is 

absous,  dissous^  m, 

absoute,  dispute,  f. 


Rire,  to  laughy 
riant,  ri. 


Savoir,  to  know, 
sachant,  su. 


Je  ri- 


s,  t; 


^nous  ri-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  riais. — Je  ris. 
Je  rirai. — Je  rirais. 

5Que  je  ri-e,  es,  e; 

I  que  nous  ri-ions,  iez. 
Que  je  risse. 


Sourire,  to  smile,  is  conju- 
gated in  the  same  manner. 


Je  s-ais,  ais,  ait; 
nous  sa-vons,  vez,  vent. 
Je  savais. — Je  sus. 
Je  saurai. — Je  saurais* 
Que  je  sach-e,  es,  e  ; 
ent.     ^  que  nous  sach-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  susse. 

Im^ier*  Sach-e,  ez  j  sachons. 


ia« 


PHILOSOPHY 


Suffire,  to  suffice^ 
suffisant,  suffi. 


Suivre,  to  follow^ 
suivant,  suivi. 


C  Je  suffi-s,  s,  t ; 

^nous  suffis-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  suffisais. — Je  siiffis. 
Je  suffirai. — Je  suffirais. 

C  Que  je  suffis-e,  es,  e  ; 

\  que  nous  suffis-ioiis,  iez,  ent. 

This  Verb  is  often  used  im- 
personally as  il  suffit^  &c. 


CJe  su-is,  is,  it; 
cnous  suiv-ons,  ez,  ent. 

Je  suivais. — Je  suivis. 

Je  suivrai. — Je  suivrais. 

{Que  je  suiv-e,  es,  e  ; 
que  nous  suiv-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  suivisse. 

Poursuivre,  to  pursue^  is  con- 
jugated in  the  same  manner. 


Vaincre,  to  vanquish^ 
vaincant,  vaincu. 


Valoir,  to  be  worthy 
valant,  valu. 


C  Je  vain-cs,  cs,  c  ; 

I  nous  vainqu-ons,  ez,  ent 
Je  vainquais. — Je  vainquis. 
Je  vaincrai. — Je  vaincrais. 

r  Que  je  vainqu-e,  es,  e  ; 

<  que   nous  vainqu-ions,  iez,* 

I     ent. 
Que  je  vainquisse. 

Convaincre,  to  convince^  is 
thus  conjugated. 


C  Je  v-aux,  aux,  aut ; 
c  nous  va-lons,  Iez,  lent. 

Je  valais. — Je  valus. 

Je  vaudrai. — Je  vaudrais. 

Que  je  v-aille,  ailles,  aille  ; 

que  nous  v-alions,   aliez,  ail- 
lent. 

Que  je  valusse. 

Equivaloir,  to  be  equivalent^ 
is  thus  conjugated — Prevaloir, 
to  fircvail.,  makes  preva/e  in- 
stead of  pr6vaz7^(?  in  the  Present 
of  the  Subjunctive. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


189 


Vetir,  to  clothe^ 
Vetant,  vetu. 


Vivre,  to  livcy 
vivant,  vecu. 


C  Je  vet-s,  s,  il  vet ; 

\  nous  vet-ons,  ez,  ent. 
Je  vetais. — Je  vetis. 
Je  vetirai. — Je  vetirais. 
Que  je  vet-e,  es,  e 


{Je  vi-s,  s,  t; 
nous  viv-ons,  ezj  ent. 
Je  vivais. — Je  vecus. 
Je  vivrai. — Je  vivrais. 
C  Que  je  viv-e,  es,  e  ; 


\  que  nous  vet-ions,  iez,  ent.  \  que  nous  viv-ions,  iez,  ent. 
Que  je  vetisse.  Que  je  vecusse, 

JC/*  The  singular  person  of 
the  Indicative  and  Imfierative 
are  now  seldom  used. 

It  is  used  most  commonly 
with  the  Personal  Pronouns 
and  signifies  to  dress  one's  s^lf, 

Ex.  Vous  etes  long-tems  a 
vous  -vetir^  You  are  long  dress- 
ing yourself. 


Voir,  to  see^ 
voyant,  vu. 


Vouloir,  to  be  willingy 
voulant,  voulu. 


C  Je  v-ois,  ois,  oit ; 

\  nous  v-oyons,  oyez,  oient. 
Je  voyais.     Je  vis. 
Jei  verrai.     Je  verrais. 

TQueje  voi-e,  es,  e; 

i  que    nous   v-oyons,   oyez, 

(^     oient. 
Que  je'visse. 

Its  derivatives  are, 
Entrevoir,  to  have  a  gUmtiseoJ. 
Pre  voir,  to  foresee, 
Pourvoir,  to  provide, 

Prevoir,  makes  je  pret'ozrai, 
— ^je  prevofrais  instead  of  je 
prei^errai — je  pret^errais. 

Pourvoir,  makes  je  pourvw*, 
— ^je  pourvozrai — je  pourvoerais 
instead  of  je  pourvf*—- je  pour- 
Vfrrai — ^je  pourverrais. 


Je  veu-x,  X,  t ; 

nous  voul-ons,  ez,  veulent. 

Je  voulais. — Je  voulus. 

Je  voudrai. — Je  voudrais. 

Que  je  veuill-e,  es,  e ; 

que  nous  voul-ions,  iez,  veuil- 

lent. 
Que  je  voulusse. 

This  Verb  has  no  Impera- 
tive. 


190 


PHILOSOPHY 


We  conceive  the  following  Table,  which  contains  the  termi- 
nations of  every  Verb,  may  be  useful  to  the  Scholar,  as  a  Me- 
morandum and  even  a  Shield  to  guard  his  Orthografihy  from  the 
blunders  so  often  made  by  the  English  Learners  in  writing  the 
Verbs. 

A   TABLE 
OF  THE  TERMINATIONS  OF  EVERY  FRENCH  VERB. 


MOODS.    I 


TKNSES. 


NUMBKRS. 


PERSONS, 


> 

H 
U 

D 

>-» 

CO 


Present. 


Present  Anterior. 


Present  Anterior  Periodical. 


Present  Posterior.< 


•J 
< 

O 
Q 

o 
u 


Present, 


Present.* 


< 


Present  Anterior.< 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular, 


Plural. 


Who  could  fail,  in  the  above  Table,  not  to  know  the  Verb  etre  placed,  as 
ve  have  shown,  at  the  eiid  of  every  French  Verb  ? 


OF  LANGUAGE.  191 

CONVERSATION  X. 

FIKAL  REMARKS  OA'  TUE  FREJSTCH  COM/UGJl'IOM 

Scholar. 

WHAT  more  have  you  to  say  on  French  conjugation  ? 
Master. 

I  have  to  acquaint  you  with  the  remaining  tenses  that 
may  be  formed  with  the  auxiliaries  Vtnir^  Devoir^  and 
Aller  (which  we  have  introduced  in  the  French  conju- 
gation), and  to  give  you  an  idea  of  the  tenses  denominat- 
ed Comparative^  I  have  deferred  making  known  to  you 
all  those  various  tenses  until  the  present  time ;  as  I  now 
perceive  with  inexpressible  satisfaction,  that  you  can, 
with  facility,  conjugate  every  French  Verb.  My  motives 
for  postponing  it,  were  to  ease  your  memory,  which 
would,  in  the  first  instance,  have  been  burthened  with  a 
number  of  tenses,  some  of  which  are  seldom  used  in 
French  or  English :  which  last  would  not  only  have  per- 
plexed you,  but  would  have  impressed  your  mind  with 
the  erroneous  notion  that  our  system  of  conjugation  was 
more  difficult  than  the  old,  where  many  of  our  tenses 
have  been,  with  much  impropriety  entirely  concealed 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  scholar.-j- 
Scholar. 

Please  to  let  me  know  the  tenses   formed  by   Venire 
with  which  I  am  unacquainted. 
Master. 

There  are  six  more  past  tenses  ^w*^  elapsed^  which  arc 
as  follow,  viz. 

INFINITIVE. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Venir  de  porten-,  To  have  just  carried. 


t  For  instance,  I  have  met  with  many  pupils,  who,  after  several  years 
instruction,  were  unacquainted  with  the  Past  Just  Elapsed,  Je  viens  dcy 
&c.  (which  occurs  so  often  in  speech,  a-id  is  besides  an  idiom  J  ajid  al- 
ways translated  it  by  /  comefroTn,  Sec.  which  implies  lumsense  in  this  case. 


192  PHILOSOPHY 

INDICATIVE. 

PAST  ANTERIOR  JUST  ELAPSED. 

Je  venaia  de  fiorter^  Sec.  I  had  just  carried,  £cc. 

PAST  POSTERIOR  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Je  viendrai  de  fiorter,  Sec.  I  shall  have  just  carried,  Sec. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 
Je  viendrais  de  Jiortcr^  Sec.  I  should  have  just  carried,  Sec. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PAST  JUST  ELAPSED. 

Que  je  vienne  de  porter^  Sec.  That  I  may  have  just  carried,  Sec. 

PAST  ANTERIOR   JUST  ELAPSED. 
Que  ye  vinsse  de  porter^  Sec.   That  I  may  have  just  carried.  Sec. 

You  may  easily  supply  the  persons  not  expressed  in 
the  above  tenses. 

Scholar, 
I  should  be  happy  to  acquire  the  same  knowledge  of 
the  other  tenses  formed  with  Devoir  and  Aller* 
Master. 
Those  tenses  are  all  futures. 

FUTURES  EXPRESSED  BY  DEVOIR. 

INFINITIVE. 

Devoir  porter ^  To  have  to  carry. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Devant  porter,  Having  to  carry. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  19! 

INDICATIVE.  ' 

FUTURE  ANTERIOR. 

Je  devais  fiorter^  &c.  I  was  to  carry,  Sec. 

FUTURE  POSTERIOR. 

Je  devrai  fiorter,  Sec.  I  shall  have  to  carry,  Sec. 

CONDITIONAL. 

FUTURE. 

Je  devrcUs  fiorter,  8cc.  I  should  have  to  carry,  See. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

FUTURE. 
Que  je  doive  porter^  &c.   That  I  may  have  to  carry,  &c. 

FUTURE  ANTERIOR. 
QueyV  dusse  fiorter^  &c.   That  I  might  have  to  carry,  &c. 

FUTURES  OF  ALLER. 
INDICATIVE. 

INSTANT  FUTURE  ANTERIOR. 
J*  allais  fiorteV)  &c,  I  was  going  to  carry,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

INSTANT  FUTURE. 

"Que  /  aille  porter^  &c.  I  must  soon  carry,  &c. 

INSTANT  FUTURE  ANTERIOR. 

Que  j*  allasse  porter^  &c.  I  was  obUged  to  carry,  &c. 
VOL.  II.  cc 


104  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 
What  are  the  Comparative  tenses  \ 

Master. 
They  are  all  past  tenses,  but  properly  termed  Compara' 
the^  because  they  exhibit  an  anterior  event  compared 
with  an  event  which  is  also  anterior^  yet  not  so  much  so 
as  the  Jir8t.  They  are  formed  with  the  radical  tenses 
of  Avoir  and  its  past  participle  e%i  placed  before  the 
past  participle  of  another  Verb. — Example. 

Quand  J'  ai  eujini  men  ouvrage,  votre  frere  est  entre. 

When  I  had  [_just]  done  my  work,  your  brother  came  in. 

In  the  above  sentence  you  perceive  clearly  that  the 
Comparative  tense  y*  ai  eu  Jini  is  used  merely  to  acquaint 
you  with  the  precise  time  your  brother  came  in, — It  is 
of  course  supposed  you  know  when  my  work  was  done ; 
for  two  unknown  epochs  instead  of  one  would  be  present- 
ed to  your  view. — The  Comparative  tense  may,  therefore, 
with  propriety,  be  compared  to  a  kind  of  measure  or 
needle  which,  on  the  dial  of  human  actions,  shows  point- 
edly the  very  instant  of  the  existence  of  an  action  un- 
known till  then. 

The  Comparative  tenses  are  chiefly  used  in  plays, 
epistolary  correspondence,  and  novels.  Eminent  French 
writers  on  subjects  of  general  utility  to  society,  furnish 
us  with  but  few  examples  of  their  use.  The  reason, 
I  believe,  why  they  are  used  so  seldom  by  them,  is  owing 
to  the  epochs  of  the  subjects  they  treat  on,  which  do  not 
require  to  be  determined  with  that  precision  which  the 
common  incidents,  related  in  the  works  before  mention- 
ed, demand. 


A  VIEW 
OF  THE  COMPARATIVE  TENSES, 

INFINITIVE. 
Avoir  eu  porte^  To  have  [had]  carried. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Ayant  eu  porte^  Having  [had]  carried. 

INDICATIVE. 

PAST  COMPARATIVE. 
J*  ai  eu  portcy  Sec.  I  have  [had]  carried,  Sec. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  195 

PAST  COMPARATIVE  ANTERIOR. 

y  arvais  eu  fiortd,  Sec.  I  had  [had]  carried,  &c. 

PAST  COMPARATIVE  ANTERIOR  PERIODICAL. 

y  eu8  eu  fiortey  8cc.  I  had  [had]  carried,  &c. 

PAST  COMPARATIVE  POSTERIOR. 

J'  aurai  eu  fiorte,  &c.  I  shall  have  [had]  carried,  8cc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PAST  COMPARATIVE. 

J"  auraia  eufiorte^  &c.  L  should  have  [had]  carried,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PAST  COMPARATIVE. 

Que  j'aie  eu  parte ^  Sec.   That  I  may  have  [had]  carried,  &c« 

PAST  COMPARATIVE  ANTERIOR. 

Que  y  eusse  eu  fiortey  Sec.  That  I  might  have  [had]  carried,  &c. 


CONVERSATION  XL 

OF  PREPOSITIOjYS, 

Scholar. 
WHAT  is  a  Prepesition? 

Master. 
It  is  a  word  placed  between  two  other  words,  to  point 
out  or  express  a  relation  between  the  ideas  denoted  by 
those  two  words* 

Scholar. 
What  do  you  mean  by  a  relation  between  two  ideas  ? 
PP  Master. 

'  I  mean  to  say,  in  other  words,  that  the  two  ideas  have 

a  correspondence  together :  this  correspondence  or  rela- 


196  PHILOSOPHY 

tion,  which  renders  them  mutually  necessary  to  each  other, 
is  pointed  out  by  the  term  called  Preposition.  When  I 
say,  for  instance,  Alexander  was  the  son  of  Philip  ;  in  this 
sentence,  there  is  evidently  a  relation  between  Alexander 
and  Philip,  which  is,  that  t\i&  former  is  the  son  of  the  lat^ 
ter.     The  Preposition  o/' points  it  out. 

The  relation,  which  the  mind  perceives  between  ideas, 
has  its  foundation,  or  prototype,  in  nature,  the  objects  of 
which  are  dependent  upon  one  another,  thus  :  The  uni- 
verse supposes  a  Creator;  a  mother  awakens  the  idea  of 
a  husband^  children^  education^  &c.  as  Pope  so  elegantly 
expresses  in  the  following  lines  : 

<*  Nothing  is  foreign  ;  parts  relate  to  whole. 
One  all-extending — all-preserving  soul ! 
Connects  each  being,  greatest  with  the  least. 
Made  beast  in  aid  of  man,  and  man  of  beast. 
All  serv'd,  all  serving — Nothing  stands  alone. 
The  chain  holds  on,  and  v^^here  it  ends,  unknown.'* 

The  relations  between  objects  being  various,  have  given 
rise  to  different  Prepositions  to  distinguish  them. 
Scholar. 

Could  not  man  have  communicated  his  sentiments  with- 
out Prepositions  ? 

Master. 

Yes  he  might,  with  the  help  of  unconnected  sentences  ; 
but  how  poor  would  that  language  have  been,  which  could 
only  express  ideas  in  a  slow  and  circuitous  manner,  with- 
out any  of  those  shades  and  lively  gradations,  that  render 
them  at  once  so  impressive,  so  elegant,  just,  and  tractable. 

Man's  reason  being  created  and  improved  by  his  use 
of  languagef,  he  was  no  longer  satisfied  with  solely  com- 
paring the  object  with  the  quality  ;  ambitious  of  emerg- 
ing, from  such  a  narrow  sphere,  and  observing  the  rela- 
tion of  one  idea  to  another,  of  one  action  to  another,  he 
soon  felt  the  necessity  of  expressing  his  enlarged  views, 
and  the  existence  of  the  relations  he  discovered  in  the  va- 
rious objects  of  nature  :  it  was  then  he  resorted  to  Prepo- 
sitions ;  so  termed  from  the  Latins,  to  imply  that  they 
are  placed  before  the  words  tliey  govern. 
Scholar. 

How  did  man  proceed  in  the  invention  of  those  new 
words  ? 


•f  See  Hobbes  and  Conclillac. 


OF  LANGUAGE.         '  197 

Master. 

On  this  occasion  he  made  use  of  the  Adjectives  and 

Nouns  his  language  was  already  composed  of;  which  tends 

to  confirm  our  fundamental  principle  on  the  formation  of 

language,  that  every  part  of  speech  sprung  from  a  Noun. 

Scholar. 

I  do  not  find,  however,  among  those  laconic  terms  de- 
nominated Prepositions^  many  traces  or  features  of  their 
origin. 

Master. 

It  is  because  they  have  been  reduced  by  constant  use ': 
you  have  seen  in  my  preliminary  discourse  that  the  mind 
is  in  perpetual  need  of  such  words  to  manifest  its  ideas. 
Terms  so  often  employed,  could  not  remain  long  entire ; 
they  were  gradually  worn  out  (if  I  may  be  allowed  the 
expression)  by  the  friction  of  speech,  and  many  of  them 
became  mere  monosyllables,  apparently  devoid  of  a  pri- 
mitive meaning ;  just  as  a  piece  of  gold  coin,  by  a  rapid 
and  continued  circulation,  diminishes  in  weight  and  re- 
tains but  faint  marks  of  its  effigy  and  stamp. 

An  English  philosopher,  armed  with  great  courage,  and 
supported  by  the  intuitive  suggestions  of  genius,  conceiv- 
ed that  those  ^r/^  expressions,  now  void  of  signification, 
had  once  a  real  import,  concealed  now  from  our  intellec- 
tual view,  by  our  ignorance  of  their  origin,  and  that  they 
were  nothing  but  abbreviations  of  Nouns  or  Verbs-}-.  To 
ascertain  these  points,  he  consulted  the  most  ancient 
works  of  the  different  languages,  from  which  the  English 
language  emanated,  and  discovered,  to  a  certainty,  by 
the  help  of  his  discriminating  powers,  that  Prepositions 
are,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  abbreviations  of  the  two 
parts  of  speech  above  mentioned,  to  wit.  Nouns  and  Verbs, 
This  holds  good  for  all  languages,  as  it  is  founded  in  the 
nature  of  things,  and  in  the  simplicity  of  the  means,  which 
nature  suggested  to  man  in  his  formation  of  language.  If 
you  wish  to  extend  your  ideas  of  grammar,  and  to  be 
convinced  of  this  truth,  read  the  Diversions  of  Purley^  by 
Home  Tooke» 

Scholar. 

Are  there  as  many  Prepositions  as  there  are  relations? 
Master. 

No  :  Flor  the  same  Preposition  is  often  used  to  express 
different  relations :  the  same  relation  is  also  sometimes 

t  That  is  to  say,  of  Adjectives  in  our  System  of  Granimar. 


19d  PHILOSOPHY 

expressed  by  different  Prepositions.  These  circumstances 
have  induced  me  to  present  to  your  view,  at  the  end  of 
this  conversation,  a  table  that  will  give  you  an  idea  of  the 
proper  use  of  Prepositions  in  the  French  language  ,*  as 
it  contains,  in  alphabetical  order,  the  Preposition-i^  with 
the  various  relations  shown  by  them,  exemplified  in  a  se- 
ries of  familiar  phrases. 

Scholar. 
Is  the  Preposition  always  placed  between  two  words  ? 

Master. 
It  should  be  so  ;  as  the  Preposition  has  been  introduced 
to  serve  as  a  canal  of  communication  between  two  words 
reciprocally  necessary  to  each  other,  for  the  complete 'ex- 
pression of  the  thought.  However  exceptions  have  been 
made  in  favour  of  poetical  harmony  and  brevity  of  lan- 
guage. This  accounts  for  the  Preposition  being  separat- 
ed from,  or  deprived  of,  its  first  term,  which  is  called  An- 
tecedent^  to  denote  its  place.  In  French  poetry,  -s  ou  will 
often  meet  with  the  Preposition  separated  from  its  Ante^ 
cedent^  as  in  the  two  following  lines : 

Aux  etres  sans  raison  le  Ciel  par  indulgence, 
De  leur  derniere  fin  cache  la  connaissance. 

To  each  unthinking  being,  Heav'n,  a  friend, 
Gives  not  the  useless  knowledge  of  its  end. 

The  antecedents  of  the  Preposition  a  (aux  put  for  a  lesy 
and  dcy  are  the  words  cache  and  connaissance. 

In  the  following  inscription  on  the  statue  of  Maffei^  at 
Verona^  viz. 

a  Scipion  MafFei,  vivant. 

To  Scipio  MafFei,  during  his  life. 

The  antecedent  words  statue  consacree  are  understood. 

On  the  direction  of  letters,  for  instance, 

a  Messieurs  Brugiere  &  Co.  a  Philadelphie. 
To  Messrs.  Brugiere  &  Cq.    at  Philadelphia. 

The  words  cette  leitre  sera  rendue^  this  letter  will  be 
delivered,  are  understood. 

Scholar. 

Is  the  second  term  of  a  Preposition  always  expressed 
in  French? 


OF  LANGUAGE.  \99 

Master. 

No.  There  are  seven  Prepositions,  after  which,  it  may 
be  understood,  viz.  auparavant^  before  ;  depuis^  since  ; 
dehors^  out;  alentour^  roimd;  dedans^  within  ;  defisus^  over 
or  above  ;  and  dtssous^  under,  exemplified  in  the  follow- 
ing phrases : 

Ce  n'est  pas  d'aujourd'hui  que  je  le  sais,  il  me  Tavait 
dit  auparavant^ 

It  is  not  to-day  that  I  know  it,  he  had  told  it  me  before. 

Si  vous  vous  plaisez  dans  ma  bibliotheque,  restez  de- 
dansy  or,  in  better  terms,  restez,  y. 

If  you  are  pleased  in  my  library,  stay  within  it. 

Au  lieu  de  mettre  les  souliers  sous  la  table,  il  les  a  mis 
dessus^ 

Instead  of  putting  the  shoes  under  the  table,  he  put 
them  over  (or  on  it.) 

II  s'  est  trompe  s'  il  les  a  mis  dessus  j  il  aurait  du  les 
mettre  dessous^ 

He  made  a  mistake  if  he  put  them  on  the  table ;  he 
should  have  put  them  under  it. 

On  m'a  refuse  I'entree  du  jardin ;  pour  m'  en  dedomma- 
ger,  je  me  suis  promene  akntour^ 

They  refused  me  entrance  into  the  garden;  to  make  up 
for  it,  I  took  a  walk  round  it. 

Vous  le  vites  1'  annee  derniere,  mais  ne  1'  avez  vous  paa 
vu  depuis? 

You  saw  him  last  year,  but  have  you  not  seen  him  since  f 

The  words  aujourd^hui,  chambre^  bibliotheque^  table ^  jar- 
din^  V annee  derniere^  are  understood.  We  call  such  words 
the  consequents  or  complements*  of  a  Preposition. 

*  We  observe  here,  once  for  all,  that  in  this  treatise  the  word  complement 
of  which  we  alread/  gave  an  idea  in  treating  on  the  adjective,  means,  as  in 
the  Grammars  of  Beauzee,  Sicard,  &c.  that  which  is  added  to  a  word  to 
determine  its  signiucation  m  any  manner  whatever. 

There  are  two  sor:s  of  words  the  signification  of  which  may  be  deter- 
mined by  complements ;  1st,  all  those  that  have  a  general  signilication  sus- 
ceptible of  ditiereni:  degrees ;  2d,  all  those  that  have  a  signiucation  relative 
to  any  term  whatever. 

Those  of  the  first  class  are  nouns  cotnm.on  and  every  aujecti've  and  adverb, 
Tfhich,  impl^'ing  in  their  sigiuucaciou  au  idea  susceptible  of  quantity,  arc 


200  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 

Are  Prepositions  useful  only  to  express  relations  be- 
tween objects  and  qualities  ? 

Master. 

They  possess  a  very  important  property  in  forming  the 
derivatives  of  Verbs.  You  have  seen  instances  of  it  in 
our  conjugation  in  the  derivatives  of  mettre^  venir^  Sec. 

Here  follow  those  in  use  for  that  purpose,  many  of  which 
are  borrowed,  in  that  instance,  with  a  slight  alteration, 
from  the  Latin. — Ad  on  A  :  mettre,  admettre;  prendre,  ap- 
prendre* — Con^  com^  contre:  courir,  concourir ;  battre,  com." 
battre;  venir,  contrevenir, — De^  dis:  faire,  d^faire;  paraitre, 
dtsparaitre, — E^  en^  em,  entre,  ex:  puiser,  epuiser;  trainer, 
entrainer;  porter,  emporter;  prendre,  entreprendre;  traire, 
extraire. — In,  im,  inter:  disposer,  indisposer ;  poser,  im- 
poser  ;  rompre,  interrompre* — Me,  W2az^:  connaitre,  mecon- 
naitre;  dire,  maudire. — Ob:  tenir,  obtenir. — Par,  per,  prey 
pro,  pour:  venir,  parvenir ;  mettre,  permettre ;  munir, 
premunir;  poser,  proposer ;  suivre,  poursuivre, — Re,  re: 
commencer,  recommencer ;  former,  reformer, — Se,  sou^ 
stir,  sus:  courir,  secourir ;  tenir,  soutenir ;  T^YQudrt,  sur- 
prendre  ;  pendre,  suspendre, — Trans :  porter,  transporter* 

An  accurate  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  the  Preposi- 
tions and  primitive  Verbs,  will,  in  general,  lead  you  to  that 
of  the  derivatives. 

You  are  now  to  commit  to  memory  the  following  table, 
subjoined  to  this  conversation.  You  will  find  the  Preposi- 
tions sufficiently  exemplified  in  it,  to  direct  you  in  their 
use  and  application. 


themselves  susceptible  of  what  is  called  degrees  of  signification ;  and  finally 
every  verb  the  individual  idea  of  which  may  also  receive  those  various  degrees. 

Those  of  the  second  class  are  several  nouns  common,  several  adjectives,  a 
few  adverbs,  every  active  verb  as  well  as  some  others,  and  every  preposition. 

If  we  abstain  from  giving  examples,  it  is  in  order  not  to  swell  this  note, 
and  because  the  doctrine  of  complements  has  been  treated  in  a  masterly- 
manner  by  Beauzee,  to  whom  we  refer  all  those  whom  a  love  for  Gram- 
jnatical  science  wculd  induce  to  explore  that  delicate  part  of  Grammar, 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


201 


AN  ALPHABETICAL  TABLE 
OF  RELATIONS, 

COMMONLY  EXPRESSED  BY  PREPOSITIONS. 


Relations, 


Prepositions,  \ 


Kxevifilifications, 


Addition.< 


outre. 


Approximation.<v 


Assimilation.<        pour. 


COutre  mon  cheval  je  lui  ai 

t'      donne  cent  ecus, 
Besides  my  horse  I  gave  him 
one  hundred  crowns. 

Nous  avons  fait  environ  deux 

lieues, 
We    have   gone    about   two 

leagues. 


\ 


Je  me  suis  trompe,  j'  alpris 

r  un  pour  V  autre, 
I  have  made  a  mistake,  I  took 

one  yor  the  other. 


Attribution.< 


concemant. 


de. 


Comparison. 


pour. 


de. 


VOL.  II. 


{Rendez  c  Cesar  ce  qui  est  it 
Cesar, 
Restore    to    Caesar    what   is 
Caesar's. 
J'  ai  quelque  chose  a  vous  dire 

concemant  cette  affaire, 
I  have  something  to  tell  you 

concerning  that  business. 
J'  ai  re9u  de  Monsieur  un  tel, 

I  have  received  of  Mr.  such 
a  one. 

Ce  n'  est  pas  pour  vous  qu'  il 

r  a  fait. 
It  is  not  jbr  you  that  he  hai 

done  it. 

II  est  phis  grand  que  vous  de 
trois  pouces, 

He  is  taller  than  you  by  three 
inches. 
Dd 


202 


PHILOSOPHY 


Relations,       j  Prcjioisitiom^,-  \ 


Exemp.lifications, 


Composition.< 


Conformity  .< 


de. 


selon. 


suivant. 


Consequence. <{      attendu 


.1 


Contiguity.< 


Distance  of 
place. 


attenanti 


joignant. 


depuis. 


loin. 


j[ires* 


On  le  trouva  enseveli  sous  un 

tas  de  blesses, 
They  found  him  buried  under 

a  heap  of  woundedo 

"II  faut  raisonner  aelon  Locke 

&  Condillac, 
We  must  reason  according  to 

Locke  and  Condillac. 
J'  ob6is  suivant  vos  ordres, 

I  obey  according  to  your  or- 
ders. 

11  fut  exempte  de  la  milice, 

attendu  son  age, 
He  was  exempted  from  the 

militia,  oiving  to  his  age. 

r  Son  jardinesta^;en«w?dumienj 
•<  His  garden  is  contiguous  to 
(^      mine. 

II  demeure  joignant  V   hotel 
monnaie, 

res  adjoirdng  the  mint. 


(^  mme, 
fll  deme 
-j  de  la 
(.He  lives 

1" 

riu 


ai  voyage  avec  lui  de/iuii 
Paris  jusqu'  a  Lyon, 
j  X  have  travelled  with  him  from 
[_     Paris  to  Lyons. 
II  demeure  a  trois  millesd'  ici, 
[e   lives    three   miles  from 
hence. 
C  Vous  etes  loin  de  lui, 
J  You  are  far  from  him. 
5  Venez  demeurer  /ii'es  de  moi, 
^  Come  and  live  near  me. 


Dist^ance  of^ 
time. 


de/iuis. 


'II  ne  m*  a  pas  ecrit  dejiuis 

quatre  ans, 
He   has  not   written  to  me 

these  four  years. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


20: 


Relations,       |  Prefiositions.  | 


Exemplifications, 


Distance  of 
order. 


deiiids. 


1 


II  a  visile  les  rnalades  depuis 
le  premier  jusqu*  au  der- 
nier, 
He  has  visited  the  patients 
from  the  first  to  the  last. 


Division.< 


rVous  coiiperez  les  pommes 

I       en  trois. 
^'  "S  You   will  cut  the   apples   in 

L     three. 

fLa  viande  a  ete  coup6e  par 
J      morceaux, 
par,        <^  r^^^  meat  has  been  cut  in 

l_     pieces. 


Duration.< 


durant. 


fiendant. 


II  etait  triste  durant  la  fete, 

He  was  sad  during  the  enter- 
tainment. 

II  a  plu  pendant  toute  la  jour- 
nec, 

It  has  rained  during  the  whole 
day. 


Exchange.<        pour> 


y  ai  echange  ma  jument /?owr 

une  meilleure, 
I  have  exchanged  my  mare 

for  a  better  one. 


Exclusion.^ 


ivation.< 


Privation 


excepte. 


hormis. 


de. 


ril  travaille  toute  la  semaine, 
J       excefite  le  dimanche, 
I  He  works   the   whole  week, 
1^     Sunday  excepted, 
II  aime  tons  les  hommes  hor- 
mis les  ingrats, 
He  loves  all  men  except  the 
ungrateful. 

"Le  ministre  1*  a  prive  de  sa 

place, 
The    minister   has  deprived 

him  o/"  his  office. 


204 


PHILOSOPHY 


Relations*       j  Prefiositions,  | 


Mxemfilifications. 


Extension. 


jusque. 


"Je  r  ai  cherche  depuis  la  cave 

jusqu'  au  grenier, 
I  looked  for  it  from  the  cellar 

to  the  garret. 


Habitation. 


chez. 


Venez  loger  chez  moi, 
Come  and  live  at  my  house. 


Imitation." 


a/ires* 


rCe  tableau  est  peint  d'  afires 
J      Rubens — d'  a/ires  nature, 
\  This  picture  is  painted  after 
L     Rubens — -from  the  life. 


Matter.  <  de. 


Mannerofliving  J 
dressing,  Sec.    ] 


I 


{ 


Manner.  <        avec. 


Means. 


avec. 


par. 


inoyennant. 


J'  ai  perdu  ma  tabatiere  d*  or, 
I  have  lost  my  gold  snuff-box. 

"11  vit  a  la  Fran9aise,  s*  habille 
a  V  Anglaise,  8c  couche  sur 
un  lit  a  la  Turque, 
He   lives   after   the    French 

I      fashion,  dresses  after  the 

I      English,  and  sleeps  in  the 

L     Turkish  mode* 

rComportez-vous    avec     pru- 

i      dence, 

(_  Behave  "iVith  prudence. 


{ 

L 

f  J'  en  V 

tnant 
I  will  1 
ofy. 


II  s'  est  tue  avec  son  epee. 
He   killed   himself  with   his 

sword. 
II  r  a  attendri  en  pleurant. 
He  softened  him  by  shedding 

tears. 
II  r  obtiendra/zar  1'  entremise 
J      de  cette  femme, 
',  He  will  obtain  it  through  the 
l^     medium  of  this  woman, 
f  J'  en  viendrai  a  bout  moyen- 
nant  votre  secours, 

bring  it  about  by  means 
our  assistance. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


205 


Relations,  J  Prefiositions, 


Exemplifications, 


Measure.*^ 


L 


Mixture. 


Motion.< 


Motive. 


Opposition.< 


Order.< 


parmi. 


de. 


sur. 


contre. 


apres. 


< 


Vous  a-t-il  vendu  son  drap  a 

r  aune  ? 
Did  he  sell  you  his  cloth  by 

the  yard? 

C  On  le  tvovivdiparmi  les  morts, 
\  He  was  fouud  among  the  dead. 

C II  est  alle  ^  la  Chine, 
\  He  is  gone  to  China, 
f  Je  croyais  que  vous  veniez  dc 
Portugal, 
I  thought  you  came/rom  Por- 
tugal. 

en 


i 

ril  est  resolu   de    passer   t 

<       Espagne, 

(^  He  is  resolved  to  go  to  Spaii 


go  to  Spain. 

{Bonaparte  se  porta  sur  Man- 
toue, 
Bonaparte  directed  his  march 
toward  Mantua. 
Nous  fimes  voile  vers  les  In- 

des, 
We  sailed  towards  the  Indies, 

5 II  r  a  fait  par  crainte, 
hi' 


{ 


{" 


He  did  it  through  fear, 
etudie  pour  s'  instruire, 


He  studies  in  order  to  get  in- 
struction. 


"II  ne  faut  pas  disputer  contre 

lui, 
You  must  not  argue  against 
him. 

{Les  soldats  defilerent  deux  a 
deux, 
The  soldiers  filed  off  two  by 
two. 
f  lis  out  passe  les  uns  ajires  les 
autres. 
They  have  passed  one  after 
another. 


I 


20« 


PHILOSOPHY 


Relations*       j  Prefiositions.  j 


JExenipUfications, 


Origin,  cause.- 


de. 


par. 


Passage. <^         ;fiar. 


Pkce.- 


afires* 


derriere. 


devani. 


'II  descend  d'  une  famille  il- 

lustre, 
He  descends/rom  an  illustri- 
ous family. 
fL'  armee  conibinee  fut  vain- 
J      cue  /mr  les  t  ran^ais, 
j  The  combined  army  was  de- 
L     feated  dy  the  French. 

Ne  passezplus  /ar  ma  cham- 

bre, 
Do  not  pass  any  more  through 

my  room. 

rVous  trouverez  a/ires  le  ves- 

J      tibule  un  magnifique  salon, 

I  You  will  find  after  the  entry 

1^     a  magnificent  parlour. 

'Cachez-vous  derriire  la  tapis- 

serie, 
Hide  youYseli behind  the  hang- 
inc^s. 

ril    vit    en    sa   propre    mai- 
•<       son, 

{_  He  lives  in  his  own  house.     - 
5  Mettez  cela  devani  \t  feu, 
I  Put  that  before  the  fire. 


Possession. 


de. 


fVoila  le  tombeau  d'  Henri 
J       quatre, 

^  That  is  the  tomb  of  Henry 
l^     the  fourth. 


Price. 


t 


'Ce  ble  s'  est  vendu  a  deux 

ecus  le  boisseau, 
This  corn  sold /or  ten  crowns 

a  bushel. 


Relation  be- 
tween persons. 


envers. 


11  a  ete  ingrat  envers  son  bien- 

faiteur, 
He  has  been   ungrateful  to- 

ivards  his  benefactor. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


207 


Relations,       \  Prepositions,  \ 


Exemfilijications, 


Resistance." 


malgre. 


nonobstant. 


r/ 


entrerai  malgre  vous, 
■will  enter  in  s/iite  of  you. 

lis  ont  ete  faits  prisonniers 
nonobstant  leur  defence  cou- 
rageuse. 

They  have  been  made  prison- 
ers notivithstanding  their 
courageous  defence. 


Situation.-< 


entre. 


J  Vous  prendrez  a  gauche  au 
lieu  de  prendre  a  droite, 
You  will  take  ofi  the  left  in- 
stead of  taking  on  the  right. 
Ne  vous  placez  pas  tnire  lui  & 

moi, 
Dont  place  yourself  between 
him  and  me. 
r  Je  1'  ai  trouve  cache  sous  le  lit, 

<  I  found  him  concealed  under 
I     the  bed. 

r  Vous  le  placerez  vers  la  porte, 

<  You   will  place   it  about  the 
(^     door. 


Species." 


State. 


Time 


J 


de, 
en. 


C  II  lui  faut  un  habit  de  cheval. 
l  He  wants  a  riding-habit. 
C  Ce  livre  est  relJe  en  veau, 
^  This  book  is  bound  in  calf. 


/ 


II  est  en  bonne  sante,  en  belle 
humeur, 
j  He  is  in  good  health,  in  good 
1^     humour. 

r  Son  vignoble  est  deja  en  fleur. 
<  His  vineyard  is  already  in 
(_     blossom. 


II  partira  a  la  fin  du  mois, 
he  will  set  oft'  at  the  end  of 

the  month. 
II  est  arrive  vers  V  heure  du 

dine, 
He  arrived  about  dinner  time. 


20«  PHILOSOPHY 

CONVERSATION  XII. 

OF  THE  ADVERB. 


Scholar. 
WHAT  is  an  Adverb? 

Master. 
It  is  a  word  which  serves  to  modify  the  quality  inter' 
woven  with  the  very  existence  of  the  Verb^  or  separated 
from  it  when  the  generating  Verb  to  be  itself  is  used. 
Scholar. 
What  do  you  mean  by  the  expressions  to  modify  the 
quality  f 

Master. 
I  mean  to  express  that  the  quality,  with  the  help  of  this 
new  word,  undergoes  a  change  in  its  primitive  acceptation, 
and  is  thereby  fitter  to  represent  the  light  in  which  it  is 
instantly  viewed  by  the  mind. 

Scholar. 
I  believe  I  shall  understand  you  better  if  you  have  re- 
course to  an  example. 

Master. 
Well,  let  it  be  so :  When  I  say,  for  instance,  this  man 
speaks,  or  rather  is  speaking  elegantly^  I  intend  to  ex- 
press,  1st,  that  the  man  is  speaking;  2dly,  that  to  his 
quality  of  speaking  I  add  that  of  elegance;  it  is  to  convey 
this  last  idea  that  I  make  use  of  the  word  elegantly^  which 
modifies  the  quality  of  speaking,  (implying  neither  ek" 
gance  nor  inelegance  in  itself),  and  represents  it  in  such  a 
manner  as  it  makes  an  impression  upon  me. 

Scholar. 

Most  grammarians  appear  to  differ  very  widely  from 
you  ;  for  they  say,  among  other  things,  in  their  definition 
of  the  Adverb^  that  this  part  of  speech  is  thus  called  from 
being  placed  close  to  the  Verb  which  it  modifies.  Tou 
make  it  modify  the  quality  and  they  th^  Verb:  What  a 
difference  in  opinion ! 

Master. 

The  grammarians  you  allude  to,  havir^g  given  us  false 
and  erroneous  notions  of  the  other  parts  of  speeph,  and 


OF  LANGUAGE.  209 

especially  of  the  Verb,  it  was  not  to  be  expected  they 
should  be  right  in  treating  of  the  Adverb.  To  prove  it 
I  might  here  analyse  several  of  their  definitions,  but  as  it 
would  be  wasting  time  to  little  purpose,  I  will,  therefore, 
for  your  satisfaction  only,  consider  that  definition  of  the 
Adverb  you  oppose  to  mine. 

If  you  have  now  present  to  your  mind  our  definition  of 
the  Verb^  the  truth  of  which  I  am  daily  more  and  more 
convinced  of,  you  will  immediately  perceive  the  defect 
of  that  definition,  for  as  the  Verb  expresses  nothing  but 
existence^  it  cannot  be  modified,  nor  can  we  say  of  a  thing 
that  it  exists  more  or  less.  By  simply  existing,  it  exists 
as  much  as  it  possibly  can  exist.  The  Verb  being  unmo- 
difiable  in  its  own  nature,  apply  what  they  say  of  the  Verb 
to  the  quality^  and  you  will  have  the  true  definition  of  the 
Adverb.  I  will  conclude  these  remarks  by  observing,  that 
the  denomination  given  to  that  part  of  speech,  derived 
from  its  local  situation  with  respect  to  the  Verb,  rather 
than  from  its  function,  is  on  that  account  extremely  erro- 
neous. I  would  propose  to  have  it  termed  Super'attribute ; 
in  fact  the  Adverb  is  to  the  Attribu- e,  what  the  Adjec- 
tive is  to  the  Noun.  The  Adjective  would  have  been  pro- 
perly denominated  Super-noun^  as  it  may  be  said  to  cover 
the  Noun^  as  a  man's  coat  covers  his  body.  The  Adverb 
being  in  the  same  manner  placed  on  the  Attribvite,  no  de- 
nomination appears  to  suit  better  than  that  I  propose. 
Urbain  Domergue^  a  member  of  the  National  Institute, 
and  author  of  several  valuable  treatises  on  grammar,  for 
the  above  reasons,  calls  it,  in  French,  Siir-attributtf^  which 
is  the  very  equivalent  of  Super-attribute. 
Scholar. 

In  lieu  of  saying  this  man  speaks  elegantly^  in  the  ex- 
ample you  have  chosen  to  illustrate  your  definition  of  the 
Adverb^  I  believe  you  might  have  said,  with  equal  pro- 
priety, this  man  speaks  xvith  elegance.  This  Adverb  may 
then  be  rendered  by  a  Preposition  and  its  complement. 

If  this  is  the  case  with  every  Adverb^  why  then  invent 
an  useless  word,  since  others  already  in  circulation  might 
supply  its  place. 

Master. 

Admitting  there  should  be  no  difference  with  respect 
to  meaning  between  the  Preposition  and  its  complement^ 
and  the  Adverb,  an  elliptical  term  containing  in  itself  the 
value  of  a  Preposition  with  its  complement,  certainly  for 
the  sake  of  brevity,  as  v/ell  as  to  prevent  a  disagreeable 

VOL.  II.  EC- 


210  PHILOSOPHY 

monotony  in  speech  by  the  frequent  return  of  the  same 
Prepositions,  the  Adverb  would  well  deserve  to  be  intro- 
duced in  language. 

Some  reflections  on  the  province  of  these  two  parts  of 
speech,  will  make  you  sensible,  that,  though  they  have 
similar  functions,  yet  they  are  not  quite  the  same  ;  for  the 
Preposition  and  its  complement  cannot  always  be  render- 
ed by  an  Adverb.  In  the  following  sentence  for  exam- 
ple ;  He  brought  it  about  by  his  perseverance.  No  Ad- 
verb in  any  language  could  replace  the  Preposition  by 
and  its  complement. 

Such  a  substitution  may  take  place  only  when  the  rela- 
tion exists  between  an  object  and  a  quality.  Thus  cou- 
rageously could  be  substituted  in  lieu  of  -with  courage; 
quickly  in  lieu  of  xvith  quickness. 

However  should  we,  in  the  expression  of  our  thoughts, 
aim  at  as  great  a  degree  of  accuracy  as  language  can  ad- 
mit of,  we  should  not  when  the  above  substitution  can 
take  place,  even  use  indistinctly  one  for  the  other  ;  for  to 
express  that  the  quality  modified  is  habitually  so,  the  Ad- 
verb  is  more  properly  used  than  the  Preposition  with  a 
complement. 

The  Preposition  or  adverbial  phrase,  on  the  contrary, 
is  better  used  to  modify  a  simple  act  of  it ;  with  propri- 
ety we  may  say,  a  man  who  conducts  himself  ruisely^ 
cannot  promise  himself  that  all  his  actions  will  be  done 
xvith  -wisdom;  un  homme  qui  se  conduit  sagement  ne  pent 
pas  se  promettre  que  toutes  ses  actions  seront  faites  avec 
sagesse :  an  author  who  does  not  write  elegantly^  may, 
however,  now  and  then  express  his  thoughts  -with  elegance; 
un  auteurquin'  ecrit  pas  elcgamment^t\\X.X.o\xtQ.{o\s  rendre 
de  tems  en  tems  ses  pensees  avec  elegance:  resist  xuith  cou- 
rage this  temptation,  and  always  follow  courageously  the 
road  to  virtue  ;  resistez  avec  courage  a  cette  tentation  hi 
suivez  toujours  courageusementle  chemin  de  la  vertu.  The 
fundamental  principle,  that  no  perfect  synonymy  exists 
between  different  expressions,  has  induced  me  to  think 
that  it  might  be  in  English  as  it  is  in  the  French  language, 
where  exists  the  difference  we  have  noticed  between  the 
Adverb,  the  Preposition  or  adverbial  phrase. 

I  hope  that  your  doubts  concerning  the  propriety  of  in- 
troducing the  Adverb  into  language  are  now  removed. 
Scholar. 

In  English  we  forro  the  greatest  part  of  our  Adverbs 
by  adding  to  our  Adjectives  the  termination  ly :  What 
termination  answers  to  it  in  French  I 


OF  LANGUAGE.  311 

Master. 

The  termination  ment^  which  you  may  have  noticed  in 
the  preceding  examples.  In  subjoining  that  termination 
to  an  Adjective,  to  make  it  an  Adverb,  the  three  follow- 
ing rules  are  to  be  observed  : 

1st.  When  the  Adjective  ends  with  a  vowel  you  have 
only  to  add  ment  to  it ;  thus  honnete^  aise^  poli^  ingenii.  will 
give  the  Adverbs  :  honnetewe"/*?,  SLisime?2t,  ]^c\ime}it,  in- 
gGnu?7ient. 

The  Adjectives  aveugle,  commode^  conforme^  enorme^ 
incommode^  opinidtre^  when  transformed  into  Adverbs, 
agreeably  to  the  above  rule,  will  require  an  accent  on 
their  e  mute,  thus  :  aveuglewze/^^,  commodemen^,  &c. 

Note — The  Adjective  hnpuni  giving  the  Adverb  hnpunement  instead  of 
itnpujihnent,  is  the  only  exception  to  this  rule. 

2dly.  Adjectives  ending  in  nt  change  that  termination 
into  mment^  thus  inechanty  ardent^  will  give  mecha?«we/2/, 
^rdemment. 

Note — Lent  and  present  are  to  be  excepted,  since  they  produce  the  Ad- 
verbs \&w\.t'ment,  presentewe?/^. 

3dly.  Adjectives  ending  in  consonants  require  the  ad- 
verbial termination  ement  to  be  added  to  their  feminine 
gender;  thus,  grand^  ^S^U  ^c.  will  give  grand^men/,  6gale- 
ment^  &c. 

The  Adjectives  commun^  confus^  expres,  importun^  ob- 
scur^  precis^  profond^  require  the  acute  accent  on  the  e 
mute  of  their  termination  feminine  before  ment  is  added 
to  it,  as  commune/we«^,  confuse'/ne/^^,  &c. 

Note — The  Adjective  gentil  that  gives  the  Adverb  genti-me/z^  instead  of 
gentille^ricwf,  is  the  only  exception  to  this  rule. 

Scholar. 

How  many  classes  of  Adverbs  are  reckoned  ? 
Master. 

They  have  been  variously  calculated,  but  I  think  nine 
classes  will  comprehend  them  all ;  for  we  may  say  that 
there  are  Adverbs  of  manner — time — place — quantity — 
number — comparison — interrogation — affirmation  and  ne- 
gation — doubt  and  reasoning.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
a  few  of  each  class  to  establish  your  ideas  on  that  subject. 
But  I  consider  with  Beawzf-e  ^w(i\v  classifications  as  objects 
rather  of  curiosity  than  real  utility. 


213  PHILOSOPHY 

ADVERBS  AND  ADVERBIAL  PHRASES 

OF  MANNER. 

Sagement^  firudemment^   confonnement^  bien^  maly  a  la  hdte^ 
fieu  a  jieu^  &c. 

OF  TIME. 

Quand,   combien  de   te7ns,  autrefois,   dernierement,   hicr,  au- 
jourd^hui,  demain,  alors,  &c. 

OF  PLACE. 
Ouy  icij  lay  y-i  en,  ailleurs,  aufires,  autour,  &c. 

OF  QUANTITY. 
Combien,  beaucoufi,  assez,  fieu,  davantage,  mediocrement,  See. 

OF  NUMBER. 
Souvent,rarement,  firemierement,  &c.  une  fois,  deux,  foia  &c* 

OF  COMPARISON. 
Autant,  plus,  moins,  tres,  fort,  aussi.  Sec. 
OF  INTERROGATION. 
Fourquoi,  comment,  quand?  Sec. 

OF  AFFIRMATION  AND  NEGATION. 

Certainement,  vraiment,  sans  doutc,  mdlement,  point  du  tout,  &c. 

OF  DOUBT  AND  REASONING. 

Peut-etrc,  ainsi,  consequemment,  pareillement,  8cc. 

Scholar. 
You  said  in  the  beginning  of  your  account  of  the  Adverb, 
that  this  part  of  speech  was  an  elliptical  term  containing 
the  value  of  a  Preposition  and  a  complement,  that  is  to  say, 
as  you  spoke  in  general  terms,  that  any  Adverb  may  be 
solved  by  a  Preposition  and  a  complement,  as  it  is  the 
equivalent  of  both.     I  believe  there  are  Adverbs  that 


OF  LANGUAGE.  21^ 

would  puzzle  you  to  show  it ;  such  as  the  following :  y^ 
en,  aupr^s,  aiitour,  hier,  aujourd'hui,  demain. 
Master. 

I  shall  endeavour  to  show  you :  1st,  that  y  and  en,  which 
are  indeed  very  ellyptical  expressions,  are  the  equivalent 
of  a  Preposition  and  a  complement*  The  fir^  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  hic,  which  was  itself  the  ellipsis  of 
the  phrase  in  hoc  loco,*  meaning  in  that  place,  dans  ou  a  ce 
lieu,  according  to  circumstances.  Thus  y  stands  in  French 
for  the  Prepositions  dans  or  a  with  a  complement. — Ex- 
amples :  j'  y  vais,  I  am  going  there,  stands  for  je  vais  dans 
or  a  ce  lieu.  J'  y  pense,  means,  according  to  circumstances, 
je  pense  d  lui,  d  eux,  d  elks,  d  cela,  d  cette  chose,  d  ces 
choses. 

En  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  inde ;  we  can  re- 
solve it  by  the  Preposition  de  and  a  complement, — Exam- 
ples: J'  en  viens,  I  covat  from  there,  is,  according  to  local 
circumstances,  for  Je  viens  de  ce pays^  de  cette  ville,  de  ce 
village,  de  cet  endroit.  Sec. 

J'  en  parle,  is  for  Je  parle  de  moi,  de  nous,  de  toi,  de  voits, 
de  htiy  d"*  eux,  d*  elle,  d"*  elks,  de  cela,  de  cette  chose,  de  ces 
choses^  de  Phomme  qui,  &c. 

You  see  by  the  above  analysis  of  y  and  en,  how  erro- 
neous v/as  the  opinion  of  grammarians,  that  made  Pro^ 
nouns  of  them.  Without  it,  indeed,  the  bare  recollection  of 
our  principles  on  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  Pro- 
noun, would  have  been  sufficient  to  guard  you  against 
this  error. 

Autour  and  aupres  indicate  themselves  sufficiently  their 
adverbiality,  bemg  composed  of  the  Preposition  d,  the  Ar- 
ticle indicative  le,  and  the  '^own  pres,  or  tour  ;  from  d  le 
pres,  d  le  tour^  they  gradually  and  naturally  became  aupres, 
autour ;  the  first  is  an  Adjective  taken  substantively,  and 
signifies  a  neighbouring  place  ;  the  second  is  a  Noun, 
meaning  the  roundness  of  a  thing. 

You  might  perhaps  have  mentioned  some  Adverbs  that 
would  have  puzzled  me  to  find  an  equivalent  to  them  in 
a  Preposition  and  a  complement,  without  invalidating 
our  general  principle,  that  an  Adverb  stands  for  a  Prepo- 
sition and  its  complement ;  for  as  Des  Brosses  observes  in 
his  ingenious  and  learned  work,  entitled,  De  la  Forma' 
tion  mecanique  des  Laiigues, 


See  Gebelin. 
t 


214  PHILOSOPHY 

"  La  preuve  connue  d'  un  grand  nombre  de  mots  d'une 
"  espece,  doit  etablir  un  prccepte  general  sur  les  autres 
"  mots  de  meme  espece  a  P  origine  desquels  on  ne  peut 
"  plus  remonter.  On  doit,  en  bonne  logique,  juger  des 
*'  choses  que  P  on  ne  peut  connaitre,  par  celles  de  meme 
"  espece  qui  sont  bien  connues,  en  les  ramenant  a  un  prm- 
"  cipe  dont  Pevidence  se  fait  apercevoir  partout  ou  la  vue 
'•  peut  s'  etendre." 

I  will  conclude  my  answer  to  your  remark,  by  observing 
that  the  words  hier^  aujourd''hui^  demain^  v>^hich  we  have 
ranked  among  the  Adverbs,  are  truly  Nouns;  an  undenia- 
ble proof  of  it,  is,  that  they  are  the  complements  of  various 
Prepositions  ;  in  the  following  examples,  taken  from  the 
Dictionary  of  the  French  Academy :  d'^hier  en  huit  jours, 
from  yesterday  week  ;  la  journee  d^  auJQiird''hui  est  plus 
belle  que  celle  d'^hier^  this  day  is  finer  than  that  ofyester- 
day;  Paffaire  est  remise  a  demain^  the  affair  is  postponed 
until  to-morrow.  Besides,  these  words  may  be  modified 
by  Adjectives^  which  still  more  forcibly  proves  them  to  be 
real  Nouns. — Examples:  tout  aujourd'hui,  the  whole  dayj 
hier  passe^  yesterday  past^  &c. 

When  the  above  expressions  are  used  by  themselves 
after  the  Verb,  the  Preposition,  with  the  help  of  which 
they  would  modify  the  quality,  is  understood* ;  this  acci- 
dental circumstance,  by  which  they  are  stript  of  the  acci- 
dents of  Nouns^  renders  them  Adverbs^  as  they  fulfil  the 
functions  thereof.  Losing  sight,  therefore,  of  the  other 
circumstances  where  they  play  the  part  of  liouns,  we 
might,  without  deviation  from  our  general  principle,  give 
them,  with  other  nouns  having  similar  properties,  a  place 
among  the  Adverbs, 


*  See  Beauzee,  Grammaire  Generale. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  2U 

CONVERSATION  XIII. 

OF  THE  CONJUJ^CTIOK. 


Scholar. 
WHAT  is  a  Conjunction  ? 

Master. 
A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  serves  to  connect  PrO' 
positions  with  one  another,  in  order  to  make  them  repre- 
sent the  better  judgments  which  are  connected  together 
in  the  mind,  and  thereby  renders  language  fitter  to  repre- 
sent the  unity  of  thought. 

Scholar. 
What  do  you  mean  hy  judgment  and  Proposition? 

Master. 
A  definition  of  either  is  prefixed  in  a  note  to  the  first 
conversation,  to  which  I  refer  you. 

Scholar. 

Could  not  man,  strictly  speaking,  have  dispensed  with 
Conjunctions  f 

Master. 

Yes,  he  might;  but  mark  the  consequence:  Speech  de- 
prived of  the  conjunctive  or  connective  words  would  be  a 
skeleton  without  colour  and  life,  while  conjunctions  ren- 
der it  not  only  lively  and  interesting,  but  even  precise, 
concise,  and  energetic. — It  was  not,  therefore,  luxury  that 
introduced  those  terms  into  language,  but  the  necessity 
of  clearly  and  speedily  manifesting  one's  thoughts.  Do 
you  wish  to  be  firmly  convinced  of  their  useful  and 
interesting  functions?  Well,  take  off  the  Conjunctions  of 
any  well  written  piece,  of  Burke's  speeches  for  instance, 
and  you  will  see  all  their  masterly  eloquence,  and  sublime 
energy,  suddenly  vanish. 

Scholar. 
How  many  Conjunctions^  or  kinds  of  Conjunctions  do 
you  admit  in  French? 

Master. 
You  will  be  surprised,  to  know  that  there  exists  but  one 
fundamental  Conjunction^  through  which  alone  the  other 
words  (so  called)  exist. 


2\^  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 
This  is  so  much  the  more  surprising  to  me,  indeed,  that 
I  have  not  long  ago  perused  several  grammars  highly- 
esteemed,  such  as  Harris's,  wherein  is  given  a  very  ex- 
tensive list  of  Conjunctions,  carefully  divided  into  classes 
denominated  as  follows: — Adjunctive^  dlsjiinciive^  subdis' 
jtinctwe,  copulative,  continuative,  subcontinuative,  positive^ 
suppositive,  collective^  effective,  approbative,  discretive,  pre-- 
sumptive,  preventive,  illative,  suspensive,  conclusive,  abne- 
gative,  casual,  hypothetical,  &c.  &c. — What  will  become  of 
all  those  classes  in  your  system  of  grammar? 

Master. 

I  will,  like  Home  Tooke,  send  them  back  to  the  chaos 
from  which  these  insignificant  terms  should  never  have 
been  brought. 

It  behoves  me  now  to  explain  to  you  my  system,  which 
is  founded  on  the  nature  of  language  and  things.  We  will 
acknowledge,  in  order  to  establish  ideas,  three  kinds  of 
Conjunctions : 

The  elementary  Conjunctions,  at  the  head  of  which  the 
fundamental  Conjunction  we  have  just  spoken  of  will  be. 

The  ellpitical  Conjunctions,  and  the  combined  Conjunc- 
tions. 

The  fundamental  Conjunction  answers  to  the  Verb  Stre 
that  generated  all  other  Verbs,  as  we  have  shown. — The 
elliptical  Conjunction  to  our  Adjective  Verbs. — The  com- 
bined Conjunctions  to  the  Verbs  called  passive,  in  French 
or  English,  by  Latino-English — or  Latino-French  gram- 
marians. 

Scholar. 

I  am  anxious  to  know  th:it  fundamental  Conjunction. 

Master. 
It  is  et :  It  draws  its  origin  from  the  Verb  etre.  Dont 
you  perceive  a  family  resemblance  between  et  and  estP 
Well,  as  striking  a  resemblance  may  be  observed  in  the 
functions  they  perform — est  is  placed  between  a  Noun 
and  its  Adjectives,  to  signify  the  qualities  are  brought 
back  on  the  objects  from  which  the  mind  had,  by  abstrac- 
tion, separated  them,  in  order  to  consider  them  apart,  or 
in  other  w^ords  to  connect  in  speech,  as  are  in  nature,  the 
qualities  with  the  objects  in  which  they  coexist — et  is  also 
iplaced  between  two  Propositions  to  connect  them  in 
speech,  as  the  judgments  which  they  portray  are  connect- 
ed in  the  mind. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


217 


If  you  recollect  our  principles  on  language,  that  words 
could  not  have  been  chosen  in  an  arbitrary  manner,  you 
will  not  be  surprised  after  what  has  been  said,  that  esf, 
which  is  the  link-xvord^  should  have  been  the  natural  ge- 
nerator of  the  Conjunction  et;  and  if  a  trifling  difference 
is  observed  in  their  pronunciation,  it  arises  from  that  na- 
tural propensity  of  mankind  to  variety,  and  their  aversion 
to  a  dull  and  fatiguing  uniformity. 
Scholar. 

What  are  the  other  Conjunctions  which,  with  the  first, 
form  the  class  denominated  by  you  elementary  P 
Master. 

They  are  only  the  following  three:   ^le^  that,  than,  or 
how  ;  ?ii,  neither,  nor  ;  and  on,  either,  or. 


QUJl. 


Jc  crois  qti*  il  est  malade. 
Le  soleil  est  plus  grand  que  la  lune. 
^/e  vous  etes  boime  &  ainiable ! 
^ae  It  ciel  comble  vos  vu;ux ! 


I  believe  that  he  is  sick. 
The  sun  is  larger  than  the  moon. 
Ilcrw  good  and  amiable  you  are ! 
May  heaven  fulnl  your  vows ! 


A'l. 


That  Conjunction  implying  a  denial,  demands,  accord- 
ing to  the  sense,  to  be  preceded  or  followed  by  the  nega- 
tive ne. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ke  prenez  iii  cette  fleur-ci ,  ni  celle  la. 
Ni  Tor  111  les  grandeurs  iie  nous  ren- 
dent  heureux. 


Take  neither  this  flower  Jior  that. 
Neither  gold  nor  greatness  make  us 
happy. 


But  though  ni  is  repeated  in  an  enumeration  as  often 
as  there  are  things  to  which  the  denial  is  applied,  ne  is 
used  but  once. 

//  n'  enteiid  ni  les  vents  qui  grondent  sur  sa  tete^ 
Ni  le  bruit  des  rochers  battus  par  la  tempete, 
Ki  *e*  tristes  parens  de  douleur  ^perdus, 
tV\  son  aiiianie,  be  las/  qui  tneurt,  *'  il  ne  'uit  plus. 

DELILE. 


Ni  /'  ardeur  dont  tu  sais  queje  I*  ai  recherchie, 
Ni  uejci  sur  son  front  via  couronne  attach^e, 
Ni  cet  atile  Dteine  oil  je  la fais  garder , 
Ni  tiion  juste  corroux  n'  ont  pu  t'  intivxider. 


RACINE. 


VOL.    II. 


Ff 


218  PHILOSOPHY 

OU, 

This  Conjunction  leaves  the  liberty  of  choice,  and  it  is 
used  in  doubt. 

EXAMPLES. 

C'est  OU  moi,  ou  vous,  oii  lui.  |  It  is  either  I,  or  you,  or  he. 

Enjiii  voire  rigueur  ernporta  la  balance 
Vgus  stttes  m'  iniposer  /'  exil  ou  le  silence. 

RACINE. 

Dernainf  attends  la  baine  ou  lajaveiir  des  homines, 
Le  nam,  de  parricide  ou  de  liber ateur  ; 
Cesar,  celiii  de  prince  ou  d'  wi*  usurpateitr. 

CORNEILLE. 

Selon  que  vous  serez  plus  ou  tnoins  miserable, 
Les  jugemens  de  cour  vous  rendront  blanc  ou  noir. 

LA  FONTAINE. 

^lelque  sujet  qii'  on  traite  ou  plaisant  ou  sublime 
^e  toujours  le  botts  sens  .s'  accorde  avec  la  rim,e. 

BOILEAU. 

Scholar. 

What  difference  do  you  discover  between  que  and  et? 
Master. 

I  perceive  a  great  analogy  of  functions  between  them; 
and  your  surprise  will  cease  when  you  are  told  their  ori- 
gin is  the  same,  ^le^  as  well  as  et^  draws  its  conjunctive 
force  from  the  link-word  est^  which  is  represented  by  e,  the 
very  name  for  connection  or  life  itself,  united  with  qu  an 
ancient  word,  the  origin  of  which  cannot,  owing  to  its  an- 
tiquity, be  satisfactorily  ascertained  ;  the  difference,  how- 
ever, observable  between  the  two  expressions  is,  that  que 
serves  to  connect  two  Propositions,  the  first  of  which 
leaves  the  mind  in  suspense  without  the  second  one, 
which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  complete  the  thought; 
while  et  connects  two  Propositions,  the  first  of  which 
offers  a  complete  sense  without  the  second  one. 

In  the  first  sentence  abovementioned,  "  Je  crois  qu^  il 
est  malade"  Je  crois  and  //  est  malade  are  both  united  by 
que :  The  Proposition  which  follows  that  qiie^  serves  evi- 
dently to  render  more  complete,  or  determine,  the  sense 
begun  by  the  Proposition  which  precedes  it. 


*  It  is  to  complete  the  metre  that  un  is  used.  D'usurpateur  (alone)  should 
have  been  used ;  for  the  epithets  of  parricide,  and  usurpateur,  are  applied  in 
a  general  sense. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  219 

Scholar. 

Is  the  que  denoting  comparison,  and  the  que  denoting 
admiration  or  desire,  of  the  same  species  witli  the  que 
just  mentioned  ? 

Master. 

Exactly  so. 

Scholar. 

I  am  not  altogether  sensible  of  it,  for  instance  ;  in  "  Je 
crois  qu*  il  est  malade,"  I  clearly  see  two  Propositions, 
but  in  "  Le  soleil  est  plus  grand  que  la  lune ;  ^le  vous 
etes  bonne  &  aimable  !  ^le  le  ciel  combie  vos  voeux !" 
I  see  but  one  Proposition  in  each  of  these  sentences : 
those  que  must,  therefore,  certainly  be  of  different  species 
with  your  first  que^  which  serves  to  connect  two  Proposi- 
tions. 

Master. 

I  am  so  much  the  more  pleased  with  your  remark,  that 
you  furnish  me  with  an  opportunity  of  speaking  to  you 
about  the  ellipsis^  which  is  nothing  but  a  suppression  or 
an  omission  of  words,  which  man,  with  the  help  of  an  ac- 
tive imagination,  discovered  he  might  dispense  with  in 
the  expression  of  his  sentiments,  in  order  to  come  the 
more  speedily  to  the  manifestation  of  them  before  his 
hearers.  The  ellipsis,  which  is  very  frequent  in  language, 
has  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  innumerable  er- 
rors of  grammarians. 

The  sentence  "  Le  soleil  est  phis  grand  que  la  lune^'' 
stands  for  that  other  "  Le  soleil  est  plus  grand  que  la  lune 
7z'  est  grande^''  in  which  you  may  perceive  the  whole  part 
of  the  second  proposition  which  the  que  was  designed  to 
unite  with  the  first  Le  soleil  est  plus  grand, 

T     ^1  ^  r  ^ue  vous  ctes  bonne  &  aimable  ! 

In  the  sentences  i   >     i      •  i  , ,  • 

(^  i^ie  le  ciel  combie  vos  vceux  I 

the  whole  of  the  first  Proposition  is  suppressed :  It  is  for 
the  former,  such  a  one  as.  Oil  ne  peut  repHer  assez  que, 
&c.  one  cannot  repeat  enough,  how^  &c.  It  is  for  the 
latter  ye  desire  que,  &:c.  I  wish  that^  &c. 

From  the  above,  I  have  a  right  to  conclude  that  the 
comparative,  exclamative,  and  admirative  que,  are  nothing 
but  the  conjunctive  que.  We  will  treat  in  the  next  con- 
versation of  the  two  kinds  of  Conjunctions  wiiich  I  call 
elliptical  and  combined. 


220  PHILOSOPHY 

Scholar. 

Before  we  begin  that  conversation,  please  to  acquaint 
me  with  the  origin  of  ni  and  ou» 
Master. 

Ni*  is  formed  from  the  negative  7ie :  the  latter  was  gene- 
rated by  the  nasal  ??,  which  is  pronounced  by  driving  the 
air  with  force  through  the  nostrils,  n  was  therefore  of  all 
sounds  the  fittest  to  represent  negative  which  is  always 
forbidding.  Hence  came  the  ne  and  non  of  the  Latins, 
which  are  common  to  our  modern  languages  formed  from 
theirs.  This  n  preceded  by  e  or  ei  formed  the  word  ain^ 
which  is  the  negative  of  the  eastern  nations,  and  from 
which  sprung  the  negative  in  of  the  Latins  which  is  kept 
up  in  its  primitive  pronunciation  ain  in  the  French  words 
in-c/?77,  m-jii'-ite^  m-cGiiatcmt^  &c. 

Ou^  which  designates  an  opposition  between  two  objects, 
comes  therefore  from  the  primitive  word  oii^  by  means 
of  vv  hich  one  designated  a  place  different  from  that  where 
one  was,  and  beings  different  from  those  that  had  just 
been  the  subject  of  conversation ;  it  was,  therefore,  op- 
posed to  jE,  which  designated  the  place  itself  where  one 
is  J  and  of  course,  properly  devised  to  designate  objects 
opposed  or  placed  in  opposite  directions.  Hence  was 
formed  the  name  of  ou-^.9^  (west)  which  signifies,  word 
for  word,  opposed  to  est^  (east)  8ic. 

The  two  Conjunctions  ni  and  on  maybe  considered  ra- 
ther as  words  devised  to  give  variety  and  conciseness  to 
speech,  than  as  v.  ords  of  primary  necessity  ;  as  they  can 
both  be  supplied  by  the  conjunctive  et  ?.nd  other  words. 

iV/,  for  instance,  can  be  expressed  by  et  and  a  negative, 
thus  :  *'  H  n'  a  ni  vice  ni  vertu"  may  be  rendered  by  "  II 
71'  a  point  de  vice  £if  il  tz'  a  point  de  vertu." 

On  is  used  for  et  and  the  Preposition  entre;  v/hen  for 
instance,  one  leaves  you  the  choice  and  says,  "choisissez 
]ia  paix  ou  la  guerre  ;"  it  is  the  same  as  if  "  choisissez 
entre  la  paix  8?  entre  la  guerre"  had  been  said. 


*  See  Graniniaire  Universelle. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  221 

CONVERSATION  XIV. 
OF  ELLIPTICAL  AJVD  COMBINED  COjYJUjYCTIOJ^S. 


Scholar. 
HOW  many  elliptical  Conjunctions  do  you  admit  in 
French  ? 

Master. 
Four:  viz.  Si^  if;  maisy  but;  ccrr,  for;   or,   which  is 
wanting  in  English;  and  donc^  therefore. 
Scholar. 
Please  to  show  me  what  suppressed  expressions  these 
elliptical  Conjunctions  stand  for. 
Master. 
With  infinite  pleasure — Si  comes  from  the  Latin  sit^ 
which  means  qu^  il  soit,  and  whereas  some  Verb  was  un- 
derstood before  qu*  tl^  as  no  phrase  could  begin  with  it; 
it  follows  that  */,  stands  for,  or  is  the  abridgement  of,  that 
long  conjunctive  phrase,  as,  jfe  suppose  qu'  il  soit  vrai  qiie^ 
I  suppose  it  is  true  that. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ponsez  bien  &  parlez  peu,  si  vous 
voiilez  qu'  on  vous  regarde  comme 
iin  homme  d'  esprit. 


Think  well  and  speak  little,  if  you 
wish  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  man 
of  understanding. 


Si  tnoti  coeur,  de  Unit  te^ns,  facile  a  tes  desirt. 
IP  ajainais  d'  tin  vionieut  differe  tea  plaisirs  ; 
Si,  pour  te  prodiguer  vies  plus  tendres  caresses, 
ye  m'  at  point  exige  ni  sermens  ni  promesses ; 
Si,  toi  sen  I  a  tnon  lit,  eiifin,  eus  tnujours  part, 
Differe  an  nwins  d'  un  jour  ce  fuucste  depart. 


BOILEAU. 


MyllS 

is  a  word  that  once  signified  plus  (in  French)  as  may  be 
ascertained  principally  by  the  works  of  the  old  French 
romance  writers  where  this  expression  occurs  often: 
Nov^,  that  it  is  used  to  connect  a  phrase  with  another,  it 
has  preserved  a  part  of  its  ancient  meaning,  and  signifies 
that  "  quelque  chose  de  phis  que^''  something  more  than 
has  been  said,  is  going  to  be  said,   that  will  fix  the  ideas 


222' 


PHILOSOPHY 


completely  about  the  subject  of  the  discourse.  It  may 
also  be  solved  by  the  expressions  et  de  plus.  Mais  is,  there- 
fore, to  all  intents  and  purposes,  an  elliptical  Conjunction. 
Mr.  HoRNE  TooKE,  who  has  cleared  so  much  ruboish 
out  of  grammar,  proves  that  by  its  origin,  the  Conjunc- 
tion hut^  which  corresponds  to  our  mah^  instead  of  inti- 
mating a  stop,  as  some  grammarians  had  thought,  always 
intimates  something  to  follow,  or  an  addition. 

EXAMPLES. 


La  satisfaction  qu'  on  tire  de  la  ven- 
geance, ne  dure  qu'  un  moment; 
mais  celle  que  1'  on  tire  de  la  cle- 
mence,  est  eternelle. 


The  satisfaction  we  derive  from  re- 
venge, lasts,  but  one  moment ;  but 
that  we  derive  from  clemeiicy,  is 
eternal. 


Louis  du  haul  des  cieux  lui  pretait  son  appui, 
Mais  il  cachait  le  bras  qui  combattait  pour  lui. 


VOLTAIRE. 


il  cherit  la  critique, 

Vous  avez  sur  ses  vers  u?i  powvoir  despotique  ; 
Mais  tout  ce  beau  discours  dont  il  vient  vous  flatter, 
N*  est  rien  qu*  un  piege  adroii  pour  vous  les  reciter. 

BOILEAU. 

CAR 

is  an  elliptical  Conjunction,  used  to  account  for  a  Propo- 
sition brought  forward. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  ne  pourrai  y  aller,  car  je  suis  re- 
tenu  au  lit  par  uue  fievre  ardente. 


I  shall  not  be  able  to  go  thither,  for 
I  am  confined  to  my  bed  by  an 
ardent  fever. 


Tout  ce  que  les  mortels  o?it  de  plus  redoutable, 
Semble  «'  etre  assemble  contre  nous  par  hasard; 
ye  veux  dire  la  brigue  8c  /'  eloquence,  car: 
jD'  un  cote  le  credit  du  dcfunt  wi'  epouvante. 


RACINE. 


In  the  above  sentences  car  stands  very  clearly  for  par 
la  raisofi  que;  it  is  therefore  an  elliptical  Conjunction. 


OR, 


This  Conjunction,  which,  as  we  have  said,  is  wanting 
in  English,  designates  the  actual  existence  of  a  condition 
without  which  what  one  is  speaking  about  could  not  take 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


223 


place;  it  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  hora  which  be- 
came hor  then  or  in  French.  Here  is  an  application  of 
this  Conjunction. 

Tons  les  hommes  sont  mortels. 
Or  vous  etes  hoJunie. 
Done  voiis  etes  7norteL 

Or  stands  for  those  expressions  :  d  cette  heurcy  d  pre- 
sent^ dans  ce  momefit, 

no  JVC, 

which  generally  follows  that  Conjunction,  may  accord- 
ing to  SicARD,  be  analysed  thus : 


"  Tous  les  hommes  sont  mortels." 
or  vous  etes  homme. 


De       ce  la  vient. 
De  la  vient. 

D'  ou  vient. 

De  unde  venit  quod, 
De  un      venit  q. 
D        ON        C 


DONC. 

Thus  the  word  donc  contains  in  itself  the  value  of 
the  Preposition  de^  the  Latin  Adverb,  undc^  and  the  La- 
tin word  qnod*  In  French,  donc  is  the  equivalent  of  these 
words :  De  Id  vient  que.  Every  body  knows  that  the  gut- 
tural, c,  replaces  y,  and  reciprocally ;  it  is,  therefore, 
easy  to  find  in  the  word  donc  the  representation  of  the 
four  Latin  words  de  unde  venit  quod. 


224 


PHILOSOPHY 


Scholar. 

What  are  the  combined  Conjunctions  ? 
Master. 

They  are  the  following,  which  we  have  divided  into  two 
classes,  according  as  they  govern  the  indicative  or  sub- 
junctive :  They  are  called  combined^  because  the  Conjunc- 
tion que  which  gives  them  a  conjunctive  property  is  com- 
bined with  some  of  the  other  parts  of  speech.  They  have, 
owing  to  that  circumstance,  with  some  propriety,  been  de- 
nominated conjunctive  phrases. 


COMBINED  CONJUNCTIONS  GOVERNING  THE 


INDICATIVE,  EXEMPLIFIED. 


Ainsi  que, 
As,  as  well  as. 
Aussi  que. 

As  as. 

Aussi  peu  que, 

As  little  as. 
Aussi  tot  que, 

As  soon  as. 
Aussi  bien  que. 

As  well  as. 
Autant  que. 

As  much  as. 

Apres  que. 

When. 

Attendu  que  (sel- 
dom used), 
As,  because. 


Je  I'ai  fait  ainsi  que  je  vous  I'ai  promis, 
I  have  done  it  as  I  have  promised  you. 
Une  place  aussi  forte  que  V  etait  cette 

ville,  n'  aurait  pas  du  etre  prise, 
A  place   as  strong  as   that    city   was 

should  not  have  been  taken. 
Vous  en  prendrez  aussi  peu  qu!  il  vous 

plaira, 
You  will  take  as  little  of  it  as  you  please. 
Je  suis  arrive  aussitot  qiC  il  m'  a  ete 

possible, 

I  arrived  as  soon  as  I  could. 

II  est  en  etat  de  le  faire  aussi  bien  que 
vous. 

He  is  able  to  do  it  as  well  as  you. 

II  aime  la  lecture  autant  que  vous  aimez 

le  jeu. 
He  loves  reading  as  much  as  you  love 

play. 
Nous  sortirons  apres  que  vous  aurez 

dine, 
We  will  go  out  rvhcJi  you  have  dined. 
Je  I'ai  puni  attendu  qui!  il  avait  tort, 

I  punished  him  because  (or  as^  he  was 
in  the  wrong. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


225 


A  (a)  ce  que, 
By,  according  as. 
A  (a)  mesure  que^ 
In  proportion  as. 

A  {a)  cause  que, 

Because. 

A  ia)  condition 

que. 
On  condition 

that. 
A  (a)  la  charge 

que. 
On  condition 

that. 
Bien  entendu  que. 

Provided. 

Cest  pour  cela 

que. 
It  IS  for  that. 

Des  que, 

As  soon  as. 

Depuis  que, 

Since. 

De  maniere  que. 

So  that. 

De  sorte  que, 

So     that,     inso- 
much. 

VOL.  II. 


A  ce  que  ']t  vois,  vous  ne  P  aurez  pas  a 

terns, 
By  what  I  see,  you  will  not  have  it  in 

time. 
A  mc^ure  qu*  ils  paraissaient,  ils  etaient 

accables  d'  une  grele  de  balles. 
In  proportion  as  they  appeared,  they 

were  overpowered  by  a  shower   of 

balls. 
Faut-il  qu*  il  soit  insolent,  a  cause  qu*  il 

est  riche  ? 
Must  he  be  insolent,  because  he  is  rich? 
J'  y  consens,  a  condition  qu*  il  viendra^ 

I  agree  to  it,  oil  condition  that  he  will 

come. 
Je  vous  loue  cette  maison,  a  la  charge 

que  vous  I'entretiendrez, 
I  let  this  house  to  you  on  condition  that 

you'll  keep  it  in  repair. 
Je  vous  Paccorde,  bien  entendu  que  voms 

tiendrez  parole, 
I  grant  it  to  you,  provided  yow  will  keep 

your  word. 
C* est  pour  cela  que  je  nc  lui  ai  pas  ac- 
cord ■  sa  demande, 
It  is  for  that  I  did  not  grant  him  his 

request. 
Des  que  la  paix  sera  faite,  je  partirai 

pour  1*  Europe, 
As  soon  as  peace  is  made,  I  shall  set 

off  for  Europe. 
Qu'avez-vous  fait,  depuis  que  vous  etes 

ici  ? 
What  have    you  done   since  you   are 

here  ? 
De  maniere  qiC  il  n'etait  pas  content  du 

tout. 
So  that  he  was  not  pleased  at  all. 

De  sorte  qu?  il  n'  a  pu  en  venir  a  bout, 

So  that  he  could  not  bring  it  about. 


226 

De  fa^on  que, 

So  that. 

Lorsqucy 

When. 

Parceque^ 

Because. 

Pendant  que. 

While. 

Puisque, 

Since. 

Shot  que. 

As  soon  as. 

Tandls  que,        » 

While. 

Tant  que. 

As  long  as. 

Tellement  que. 

So  that. 
Tellement  que. 

So  very  that, 

Vu  que, 

Seeing  that,  con- 
sidering. 


PHILOSOPHY 

La  nuit  vint,  de  fav.on  que  je  fus  con- 

traint  de  me  retirer, 
Night  came  on,  so  that  I  was  obliged 

to  retire. 
Lorsqu'  il  apprit  cette  fatale  nouvelle,  il 

partit  sur  le  champ, 
When  he  learned  this  fatal  news,  he  set 

off  immediately. 
Je  vous  reprends  de  vos  fautes,  par- 

ceqw  je  vous  aime, 

I  chide  you  for  your  faults,  because  I 
love  you. 

Pendant  que  vous  jouez,   il  etudie   sa 

lecon. 
While  you  play,  he  studies  his  task. 
Puisgue  vous  le  voulez,  cela  m'  est  egal, 
Since  you  will  have  it  so,  it  is  all  one 

to  me. 
Shot  que  j'  eus  re^u  le  paquet,  je  le  lui 

adressai. 
As  soon  as  I  had  received  the  bundle, 

I  forwarded  it  to  him. 
Tandis  que  vous  causez,  le  chat  empor- 

te  la  viande. 
While  you  prate,  the  cat  carries  off  the 

meat. 
Tant  que  j'  aurai  de  V  argent,  vous  n'  en 

manquerez  pas, 
As  long  as  I  have  money,  you  shall  not 

want  any. 
Tellement  que  vous  ne  voulez  pas  me 

repondre, 
So  that  you  refuse  to  answer  me. 

II  est  tellement  occupe  qu"*  il  ne  re^oit 
personne. 

He  is  so  very  busy  that  he  admits  no- 
body. 

II  ne  le  fera  pas,  vu  qu*  on  le  lui  a  de- 
fendu, 

He  will  not  do  it,  seeing  that  it  is  for- 
bidden to  him. 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


227 


COMBINED  CONJUNCTIONS  GOVERNING  THE 
SUBJUNCTIVE,  EXEMPLIFIED. 

A  Dieu  ne  plaise  que  j'  en  aie  envie, 


A   (a)    Dieu    ne 

plaise  que^ 
God  forbid. 
Ajia  que. 

That,  to  the  end 

that. 
A  (a)  moins  que. 

Unless. 

Avant  que, 

Before. 
Au  cas  que, 

In  case,  if. 

En  cas  que. 

In  case,  if. 

A   (a)    la    bonne 

heure  que, 
I,  &c.  agree. 


Bien 


que. 


Tho',  altho'. 
Encore  que, 

Tho',  altho'. 

Ce  n^  est  pas  que, 

It  is  not  that. 

De  peur  que, 

For  fear,  lest. 


God  forbid  1  shoidd  wish  for  it. 
Je  suis  sa  caution,  ajin  qu' il  soit  mis 
en  liberte, 

I  am  his  surety,  that  he  may  be  set  at 
liberty. 

Vous  ne  F  aurez  pas,  d  moins  que  vous 

n'  en  payiez  la  moitie, 
You  shall  not  have  it,  unless  you  pay 

the  half  of  it. 

II  est  entre   avant  que   nous  fussions 
leves, 

He  came  in  before  we  were  up. 

II  faudra  nous  retirer,  au  cas  que  cela 

arrive, 
We  must  withdraw,  in  case  it  should 

happen. 
En  cas  qu'  elle  vienne,  dites-lui  que  je 

suis  sorti, 
If  she  comes,  tell  her  I  am  gone  out. 
A  la  bonne  heure  qu^  il  sorte,  pourvu  qu' 

il  revienne  bientot, 

I  agree  he  should  go  out,  provided  he 

soon  comes  back. 

II  est  honnete  homme,  bien  qu'  il  soit 
pauvre, 

He  is  an  honest  man,  tho*  he  be  poor. 
Encore  qu'  il  soit  riche,   il  n'  en  vaut 

pas  mieux, 
Allho^  he  be  rich,  he   is  not  a  bit  the 

better  for  it. 
Ce  w'  est  pas  que  je  croie  un  mot  de  ce 

qu'  il  dit. 
It  is  not  that  I  believe  one  word  of  what 

he  says. 
II  a  fait  son  testament,  de  peur  qu'*\\  ne 

mourut. 
He  made  his  will,  for  fear  or  lest  he 

should  die. 


22S 


PHILOSOPHY 


De  crainte  que* 

For  fear. 

Loin  que^ 

Far  from. 
Moyennant  que, 

Provided  that. 

No7i  que  ou  non 

pan  qjei 
Not  that. 
Pliit  a  DieU) 

Would  to  God. 

Pour  que, 

To  the  end  that. 

Pour  peu  que, 

If  ever  so  little. 

Pourvu  que, 

Provided. 

^loique, 

Tho'. 

Sans  que, 

Without. 

Soxt  que, 
Whether. 
Suppose  que, 

Supposing  that. 


Depechez-vous,  de  crainte  que  V  heure 

ne  soit  passee, 
Make  haste,  for  fear  the  hour  be  over. 
Loin  qu*  il  fasse  du  bruit,  il  est  tran- 

quiile, 
Far  from  making  a  noise,  he  is  quiet. 
II 1'  aura,  moyennant  qu'  il  en  paye  la 

valeur, 
He  shall  have  it,  provided  that  he  pays 

its  value. 
Non  que   (ou  non  pas   que)  j '  y   pr6- 

tende, 
Not  that  I  should  pretend  to  it. 
Plut  a  Dieu  que  les  hommes  entendis- 

sent  leurs  vrais  interets ! 
Would  to  God  that  men  should  under- 
stand their  own  interests  ! 
II  faut  un  autre  gouvernement,  j&owr  que 

j'aille  en  France, 
To  the  end  that  I  may  go  to  France, 
there  must  be  another  government. 
II  le  fera,  pour  peu  que  vous  lui  en  par- 

liez, 
He  will  do  it,  {/'you  speak  to  him  ever 

so  little  about  it. 
lis  travailleront j  pourvu  qu'  on  les  paye 

bien. 
They  will  work,  provided  they  are  well 

paid. 
Sa  philosophie  fut  adoptee,  quoi  qW  on 

s'  y  opposat  d'  abord. 
His  philosophy  was  adopted,  tho'  they 

opposed  it  at  first. 
Cela  pourrait  arriver,  sans  qu' il  m6ri- 

tat  des  reproches, 
That  might  take  place,  without  his  de- 
serving reproaches. 
Soit  qu'  il  parte  ou  qu'  il  demeure. 
Whether  he  sets  out  or  remains. 
Quel  fruit  en  retirerez-vous,  suppose 

qiC  il  y  consente  ? 
What  will  you  gain  by  it,  supposing  that 
he  consent  to  it  ? 


OF  LANGUAGE. 


22^ 


Note. ...The  following  modes  of  expressions  having  de  instead 
of  que,  require  the  Verb  in  the  hi/iniiive  only. 


A  (a)  la  charge  de^ 
On  condition  of. 
AJin  de^ 
In  order  to. 
De  crainte  de. 
Lest,  for  fear  of. 
De  peur  de. 
Lest,  for  fear  of. 


Je  lui  ai  vendu  ma  terre,  a  la  charge  de 
payer  mes  creanciers, 

I  sold  him  my  estate,  on  condition  of 
his  paying  my  creditors. 

II  est  alle  le  trouver,  a  fin  df'obtenir  sa 
grace. 

He  called  upon  him,  in  order  to  obtain 
his  pardon. 

Les  troupes  se  fortifierent,  de  crainte  d* 
etre  surprises. 

The   troops   fortified  themselves,  for 
fear  of  being  surprised. 

Nous  avons  fait  venir  du  ble,  de  peur  s 
d'  en  manquer. 

We  ordered  corn,  for  fear  of  want- 
ing it. 


OF  THE  INTERJECTION. 

Scholar. 
What  are  the  Interjections  ? 

Master. 
They  are   sounds  which   serve  to  portray  in  a  lively 
manner  the  affections  of  the  soul,  whether  in  joy,  pain, 
trouble,  despair,  indignation,  admiration,  surprise,  &c. 

Scholar. 
Why  do  you  not  call  them  words,  instead  of  sounds, 
as  you  called  the  other  parts  of  speech  ? 

Master. 
Because,  their  functions  are  very  different  from  words. 
A  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea — an  Interjection  is  that  of  a 
scn'iation.  The  difference  is,  therefore,  very  great,  and  as 
the  sensation  has  generated  the  idea  which  is  the  effect  of 
it ;  so  has  the  Interjection  generated  words,  the  signs  of 
our  ideas  and  thoughts. 

Scholar. 
Permit  me  then  to  express  my  surprise  to  you,  for  not 
having  treated  of  them  first  of  all. 


230  PHILOSOPHY 

Master. 

I  did  not,  because  it  would  have  been  of  no  use  to  you ; 
the  Interjections  having  no  influence  on  the  other  parts 
of  speech,  and  being  a  kind  of  strangers  among  them  ; 
they  must,  of  course,  be  presented  the  last  to  the  investi- 
gation of  grammarians  ;  whilst  they  must,  first,  be  pre- 
sented to  the  eyes  of  the  etymologist,  whose  business  is 
to  search  the  origin  and  filiation  of  words  deduced  from 
one  another. 

Scholar. 

Please  to  acquaint  me  with  the  principal  French  Inter- 
jections, exemplified  in  French  sentences. 

Master. 
With  pleasure.    They  are  as  follow :  Ah!  ha!  die!  eh! 
he!  Ji!  O!  oh!  ouf!  him!  horn!  hon!  he  las  !  hi,  hi^hi! 

Ah  !  expresses  remorse,  wrath,  admiration,  or  joy. 

Ah  !  si  tu  I'avais  vu  le  poignard  dans  le  sein, 
S'  attendrir  a  la  vue  de  son  lache  assassin! 

Voltaire. 

Ah  !  que  ton  imprudence  excite  men  courroux  ! 

Racine. 

Ah !  qu*  il  t'  en  coutait  pen  pour  charmer  Heloise  ! 
Tu  parlais,  a  ta  voix  tu  me  voyais  soumise. 

Colardeau. 

Ah  !  je  respire  ;  enfin  nous  remportons : 
Vous  devenez  un  homme  raisonnable. 

Voltaire. 

Ha!  expresses  nothing  but  surprise,  and  is  used  only 
in  this  sense: 

Ha  !  vous  voila. 

Aie!  expresses  pain. 

Aie!  Aie!  voila  mes  douleurs  qui  me  reprennent. 

Eh  !  expresses  mercy,  pity,  or  tenderness. 

Jouis— je  le  ferai— Mais  quand  done  ?  Des  demain — 
Eh  !  mon  ami,  la  mort  te  pent  prendre  en  chemin : 
Jouis  des  aujourd'hui. 

La  Fontaine. 

Eh !  seigneur,  excusez  sa  ieunesse  imprudente. 

°  ^  Voltaire. 


OF  LANGUAGE.  231 

Eh  !  mon  pere,  oubliez  votre  rang  a  ma  vue. 

Racine, 

He  !  serves  chiefly  to  call. — It  is  used  also  with  bien  in 
interrogation,  and  when  it  expresses  no  passion. 

He^  Petit- Jean,  Petit- Jean ! 

Racine. 

He  bien^  ton  maitre,  enfin,  a-t-il  trouve  sa  botte  ? 

Regnard. 

He  bien,  ma  chere  soeur,  quel  soin  ici  t'amene  ? 

Regtiard. 

Fi !  expresses  contempt,  or  disgust. 

fi  du  plaisir 

Que  la  crainte  pent  corrornpre ! 

La  Fontaine. 

0  !  expresses  inward  and  profound  grief,  despair,  love, 
or  indignation. 

O  douleur,  6  regrets ;  6  vieillesse  pesante  ! 
O  vengeance,  6  tendresse,  6  nature,  6  devoir! 

Voltaire. 

O  ciel !  il  est  done  vrai  que  mon  am  ant  me  fuit ! 

Colardeau. 

0  douce  volupte  !  plaisirs  ou  je  me  noie  ! 

Colardeau. 

O  jour  I  jour  execrable  ! 
Jour  affreux  !  ou  1'  acier,  dans  une  main  coupable, 
Osa 

Colardeau, 

Oh  I  expresses  surprise,  as  in, 

Oh  !  oh  !  je  n'  y  prenais  pas  garde. 

Oh  I  expresses  affirmation,  as  in. 
Oh  I  parbleu,  je  vous  liens. 

Oh  I  expresses  indignation,  as  in. 

Oh  .'  vieillesse  facile  !   Oh  .'  Jeunessc  imnrudente  ! 
Oh !  de  mes  cheveiix  gris,  honte  trop  eviclcnte ! 
Est-il  dessous  le  ciel,  pere  plus  malheureux  ? 

Cresset. 


232  PHILOSOPHY 

Oh !  is  sometimes  followed  by  que^  then  it  expresses 
desire,  as, 

Oh  t  que  le  ciel  soigneux  de  notre  poesie, 
Grand  Roi,  ne  nous  fit-il  plus  voisins  de  1'  Asie  ! 

Boileau. 

Oh  !  que  si  cet  hiver  un  rhume  salutaire. 

Boileau. 

Oufl  expresses  suffocation,  excess  of  fatigue. 

Oufl  ne  m'  etrangle  pas — Oufl  je  n'  en  puis  plus. 

Htm^  hom^  hon^  express  doubt,  interrogation,  and  aston- 
ishment. 

Hon  I  que  dites-vous  la  ? 

HSlas  !  expresses  grief,  complaint, 

Helas  I  plus  je  lui  parle,  &  plus  il  m'  interesse. 

Voltaire. 

Helas  I  petits  moutons,  que  vous  etes  heureux  ! 

Madavfie  Deshoulieres. 

Hi.f  hi,  hi,  expresses  laughing. 

Hiy  hi,  hi,  comme  vous  voila  bati  I  Vous  etes  si  plaisant 
que  je  ne  saurais  m'  empecher  de  rire,  hi,  hi,  hi, 

Moliere. 


SECTION  11. 


OF   SYNTAX. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  FIRST. 


Scholar. 
WHAT  is  the  meaning  oi  Sifntaxt 

Master. 
Syntax  is  the  right  ordering  of  words  united  to  express 
thoughts,  and  is  founded  on  the  polite  custom  of  the  lan- 
guage of  which  it  treats. 

Scholar. 
Instead  of  so  many  words  and  phrases,  why  did  you 
not  first  teach  me  the  laws  and  rules  of  Syntax,  accord- 
ing to  the  plan  chalked  out  by  every  writer  on  French 
grammar  for  the  use  of  the  English  pupil  ? 
Master. 
For  one  reason  only,  and  this  is  irresistible. — Those 
very  words  and  phrases  you  mention,  constitute  the  lan- 
guage with  which  I  wished  you  to  be  acquainted,  while 
all  the  rules  of  the  language  put  together  do  not  in  the 
least. 

Scholar. 
What  then  are  the  rules  of  a  language  ? 

Master. 
They  are  the  result  of  observations  on  a  language ;  and 
as  observations  on  a  language  cannot  be  the  language  it- 
self,  a  language  must  necessarily  be  learned  before  the 
rules  thereof  can  be  taught. 

Those  principles  have  guided  me  in  the  course  of  your 
instruction  in  French.  What  is  the  consequence  ?  You, 
now,  owing  to  the  numerous  -phrases  and  modes  of  ex- 
pression with  which  your  memory  is  stored,  and  which, 
I  trust,  are  correct,  are  not  only  able  to  speak  and  under- 
stand French  grammatkallif't  but  even  to  understand  and 
vol.  II.  'nh 


234  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

relish  the  poets^  although  three  moifths  ago,  you  knew 
not  a  single  word  of  that  language. 

Moreover,  behold  from  the  plan  pursued  with  you,  be- 
sides the  advantage  of  acquiring,  in  an  amazing  short 
space,  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  French  language,  you 
have  derived  another  one  equally  precious,  though  unper- 
ceived  at  present,  that  of  improving  the  faculty  of  think- 
ing; nor  is  this  to  be  at  all  wondered  at,  if  it  be  consider- 
ed that  the  true  teachers  of  all  things,  Nature  and  Analy- 
sis  have  been  our  only  guides. 

The  part  of  my  work  intitled  ''  1/ie  Philosophy  of  Lan- 
guage^'' is  a  treatise  on  Logic  (in  disguise),  which  as  it 
rests  on  the  same  basis  (the  origin  and  generation  of  ideas, 
and  the  use  of  general  and  abstract  terms  in  language,) 
will  enable  you  easily  to  understand  the  works  of  the  best 
metaphysicians  such  as  Locke,  Condillac,  &c. 

Before  closing  this  conversation,  I  cannot  avoid  giving 
you  some  interesting  advice  on  the  mode  of  conducting 
your  studies.  If  you  have  in  view  to  improve  in  know- 
ledge, I  would  recommend  to  you  the  study  of  mefMphysics^ 
and  particularly  of  the  works  of  Condillac,  in  French : 
as  metaphysics  is  the  basis  of  all  science,  an  acquaintance 
with  the  writings  of  this  celebrated  author,  who  has  fallen 
into  very  few  errors,  v/ill  pave  your  way  to  the  greatest 
progress  in  all  your  future  studies. — Nor  need  you  be 
surprised  at  this,  as  metaphysics  is  the  science  of  ideas^ 
and  teaches  how  to  govern  the  mind  in  the  search  of 
truth  and  useful  discoveries;  which  knowledge,  indeed, 
is  so  much  the  more  necessary,  in  the  present  age,  as, 
without  it,  one  would  easily  become  the  dupe  of  writers, 
who,  assisted  by  abstract  terms  which  they  only  abuse,  en- 
deavour to  seduce  the  morals  or  corrupt  the  politics  of 
their  readers. 

My  heart  groaning  under  the  most  poignant  wounds  of 
affliction,  cannot,  in  proof  of  what  is  here  advanced,  avoid 
recurring  to  the  late  ever  deplorable  revolution  in  France. 
— How  many  millions  of  men  have  been  the  dupes  of  the 
words  LIBERTY,  EQUALITY,  PHILOSOPHY! 
Had  the  individuals  to  whom  those  lofty  terms  were  in- 
cessantly sounded,  been  able  to  analyse  or  reviev/  in  their 
mind  the  abstract  ideas  of  which  they  are  the  signs,  these 
deluded  people  would  soon  have  discovered  that  instead 
of  liberty  they  Vvcre  in  fact  presented  with  nothing  but  fet- 
ters, that  the  boasted  equality  was  an  absurd  chimer?,  and 
that  vain  sophistry  was  die  philosophy  of  the  day. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


235 


INSTRUCTIO:^f  THE  SECOND. 
ON  THE  ARTICLE. 


Master. 
The  rules  concerning  the  Article  being  many,  and  it 
being  contrary,  in  almost  every  instance,  to  the  genius  of 
the  French  language,  to  use  a  JSfoun  as  subject  or  object  in 
a  sentence,  without  preceding  it  by  the  Article^  I  shall 
begin  with  it.  Please,  therefore,  to  give  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  following  rules. 

RULE  L 

The  Article^  though  it  may  be  omitted  in  English,  in 
French  precedes  every  Noun,  and  accords  with  it  in 
gender  and  number. 

EXAMPLES. 


La  crainte  de  la  mort  est  na- 
turelle  a  1'  homme. 

La  paix  vamene  /f  repos,  la 
tranquillite  Sc  les  richesscs. 

II  apprend  le  dessin,  la  dance 
Sc  les  mathematiques. 

Z'  ignorance  est  la  mere  de  /' 
admiration,  de  I'  ei-reur,  du 
scrupule,f/(?  /'  irresolution, c/e 
la  superstition,  dea  ridicules 
8c  des  preventions  de  toute 
espece. 

Les  Egyptiens  accoutumaient 
leurs  enfans  a  /'  obeissance, 
au  travail,  a  la  sobriete,  au 
desinteressement,  a  /'amour 
des  arts  ou  des  lettres  Sc  au 
desir  de  V  honneur. 

Apportez  moi  un  essuie-main, 
un  verre,  un  couteau,  une 
fourchette,  une  assictte  Sc 
une  serviette. 

J'  ai  besoin  d'  un  manteau,  d' 
un  parapluie  5c  d'  une  paire 
dc  liottes. 


The  fear  of  death  is  natural  to 
man. 

Peace  brings  back  rest,  tran- 
quillity and  wealth. 

He  is  learning  drawing,  danc- 
ing, and  mathematics. 

Ignorance  is  thi:  mother  of  ad- 
miration, error,  scruple,  ir- 
resolution, superstition,  ridi- 
cule, and  prejudices  of  all 
kinds. 

The  Egyptians  trained  up  their 
children  to  obedience,  labour, 
sobriety,  disinterestedness , 
the  love  of  arts  or  letters 
and  thirst  of  honour. 

Bring  me  a  towel,  tumbler, 
knife,  fork,  plate  and  nap- 
kin. 

I  v/ant  a  cloak,  umbrella  and 
a  pair  of  boots. 


236 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE   II. 

Although  proper  names  of  men  and  cities^  in  general, 
require  not  the  Article^  proper  names  of  countries^  seas^ 
rivers,  and  mountains  always  admit  it  before  them. 

EXAMPLES. 


La  France  est  au  nord  de  la 
M6diterranee. 

J'  ai  passe  par  la  Hollande, 
/'Allemagne,  Sc  la  Pologne. 

J'  ai  traverse  plusieurs  fois  la 
Tamise  en  bateau. 

Le  Parnasse,  le  Pinde,  &  1'  He- 
licon, sent  les  montagnes 
favorites  des  Poetes. 

La  cime  du  Mont-Blanc  a  2400 
toises  au-dessus  du  niveau  de 
la  mer. 


France  lies  to  the  north  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

I  have  passed  through  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  Poland. 

I  have  crossed  the  Thames  se- 
veral times  in  a  boat. 

Parnassus,  Pindus,  and  Heli- 
con are  the  favorite  moun- 
tains of  poets. 

The  top  o/ Mont-Blanc  is  4800 
yards  above  the  level  of  the 
sea. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ABOVE  RULE. 

Some  provinces  and'  kingdoms  having  the  same  names 
with  the  capital  cities  thereof,  always  dispense  with  the 
Article. 

EXAMPLES. 


Miples  est  un  pays  delicieux. 
Valence  est  une  des  plus  agre- 
ables  provinces  d'Espagne. 


JVafiles  is  a  delightful  country. 

Valence   is    one    of  the    most 

agreeable  provinces  of  Spain. 


To  or  in  when  followed  by  the  name  of  a  country  of 
Europe,  is  expressed  by  the  Preposition  en,  and  from  by 
de  ;  but  when  followed  by  the  name  of  any  of  the  four 

Quarters  of  the  world,  from  is  better  expressed  by  the 
'reposition  and  Article  de  l\ 

EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  dessein  d'  aller  en  Italie,  au 

printems. 
J'  ai  voyage  en  Angleterre,  en 

Ecosse  Sc  en  Irlande. 
Comptez-vous  resterlong-tems 

en  Prusse  ? 
P'  ou    venez-vous  ?    Je  viens 

rf'  Espagne,  de  Portugal,  &c. 

y  arrive c/^  /'  Europe, (f<?  /'Asie, 
de  r  Afrique  &  de  I'  Ameri- 
cjue. 


I  intend  going  to  Italy,  in  the 

spring. 
I  have   travelled  in    England, 

Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
Do  you  intend  to  stay  long  in 

Prussia  ? 
From  whence  do  you  come  ? 

I  come  from  Spain,  Portu-^ 

gal.  Sec. 
I  arrive  from   Europe,   Asia, 

Africa,  and  America. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


237 


But  when  the  country  mentioned  is  out  of  Europe  and 
not  generally  known  or  of  little  importance,  then  the  Ar- 
ticles <2W,  a  la^  aux  ;  du^  de  la^  des^  instead  of  the  Preposi- 
tions en  or  de^  should  always  precede. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  m'  a  dit  qu'  il  devait  aller  au 

Mexique,  au  Bengal,  a  la 
Flo  ride,  au  Fcloponese,  au 
Milanais. 
II  vient  d'  arriver  du  Mexique, 
du  Bengal,  de  la  Floride,  du 
Peloponese,  du  Milanais. 


He  told  me  he  was  to  go  to 
Mexico,  Bengal,  Florida, 
Peloponnesus,  Milaneze. 

He  is  just  arrivedyrom  Mexico, 
Bengal,  Florida,  Peloponne- 
sus, Milaneze. 


RULE  IIL 

When  national  or  nominal  Adjectives  of  European  na- 
tions or  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe  are  used,  in 
English,  before  a  Noun  denoting  some  commodity ^  produc- 
tion or  peculiarities  relative  to  that  country,  or  city,  the 
Adjective  is  translated,  in  French,  by  the  name  of  the 
country  itself  icad  placed  after  the  Noun  oi commodity^  &c. 
which  is  immediately  followed  by  the  Preposition  de. 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  fruits  de  France  valent 
mieux  que  ceux  d'  Angle- 
terrc, 

Le  drap  d*  Espagne  est  excel- 
lent. 

Labiere  de  Flandres  W  est  pas 
aussi  bonne  que  celle  dc  HoL- 
lande, 

Les  vins  d*  Asie  sont  fort  es- 
times. 

La  pourpre  de  Tyr  etait  fort 
recherchee. 

Les  cotes  d'  Angle terre  sont 
bien  defendues. 


The  French  fruits  are  better 
than  the  English, 

Spanish  cloth  is  excellent. 

Flemish  beer  is  not  so  good  as 
the  Dutch, 

Asiatic  wines  are  highly  es- 
teemed. 

The  Tyrian  purple  was  much 
sought  after. 

The  English  coasts  are  well 
defended. 


Remark,  although  we  may  say,  with  equal  propriety, 
la  noblesse  Fran(^aise^  or  la  noblesse  de  France^  the 
French  nobility,  we  cannot  say,  le  Roi  Francois^  but  le 
Roi  de  France^  the  French  king. 


238 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


If  the  national  Adjectives  of  countries  out  of  Europe,  or 
those  of  countries  not generalh/  known,  be  used,  the  Arti- 
cle du,  de  la  &c.  should  be  used,  instead  of  the  Preposition 
de,  ^ 

•    EXAMPLES. 


L'  or  du  Perou  fit  commettre 

bien  des  crimes  aux  Espag- 

nols. 
Les  mouchoirs  de  V  hide  sont 

a  present  tres  a  la  mode. 
Les   vins    dii   Mantouan   sont 

fort  bons. 


Peruvian    gold    induced    the 

Spaniards  to  commit  a  great 

many  crimes. 
Indian  handkerchiefs  are  now 

much  in  fashion.  * 

Mantuan      wines      are     very 

good. 


Scholar. 
Do  proper  names  of  individuals  and  cities  ever  take 
the  Article  P 

Master. 

Yes,  in  particular  cases  :  1st.  We  can  place  the  Article 
plural  before  the  names  of  great  men^  as  it  has  been  re- 
marked in  a  former  part  of  this  work,  to  which  you  are 
referred  (page  45). 

2d.  Before  the  name  of  a  woman^  (in  the  singular 
only),  by  way  of  derision  or  contempt. 

3d.  It  may  sometimes  be  used  before  the  names  of 
play-actresses. 


La  Brinvillicrs  etait  une  fa- 
mcuse  empoisonneuse. 

La  Saint-Huberti  a  charme 
tout  Paris  par  la  melodic  de 
sa  voix. 


EXAMPLES. 

The  Brinvilliers  was  a  famous 

poisoner. 
The     Saint-Huberti     charmed 

all  Paris  by  the  melody  of 

her  voice. 


N.  B.  Before  the  proper  name  of  the  first  example, 
the  words  femme  appelee^  a  woman  called ;  and  before 
that  of  the  second,  the  words  actrice  appelee^  an  actress 
called,  are  understood. 

The  Article  is  also  placed  before  some  originally  Italian 
names  such  as  Le  Tasse,  Le  Ca.rrache,  &c:  before  the  first, 
the  word  po'ete^  and  before  the  second,  the  word  peintre^ 
are  understood.  Proper  names  of  cities  take  the  Article, 
only  when  they  have  kept  up  their  original  appellative  sig- 
nification, as,  le  Chdtelet  (for  le  petit  chateau)  la  Rochelle — 
k  Havre — le  Caire  (la  ville,  in  Arabian)  &c. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


239 


Remark,  the  Article  may  be  used  in  French  before  AdjeC' 
tives^  Prepositions^  Adverbs^  Conjunctions^  and  the  Infnitives 
of  some  Verbs,  which  thereby  become  so  many  Nouns.  As 
we  have  attended  before  (in  page  44)  to  this  property  of 
the  Articles^  the  learner  is  there  referred  for  examples. 

RULE  IV. 

The  Indicative  Article,  instead  of  the  declarative^  as  in 
English,  is  used,  in  French,  before  Nouns  of  measure^ 
weighty  and  number, 

EXAMPLES. 


MESURE. 

Le  drap  vaut  tant  la  verge. 

Le  charbon  se  vend  trois  che- 
lings  le  boisseau. 

POIDS. 

Les    chandelles     se    vendent 

quinze  sous  la  livre. 
I^e  foin  coute  a  present  une 

demi-guinee  le  quintal. 

KOMBRE. 

Les  oeufsse  sont  vendusjusqu' 
a  vingt  sous  la  douzaine — 8c 
les  choux  jusqu'  a  deux 
gourdes  le  cent. 


MEASURE. 

Cloth    is   worth    so    much    a 

yard. 
Coals  sell  (or  are  sold)  at  three 

shillings  a  bushel. 

WEIGHT. 

Candles   are    sold    at    fifteen 

pence  a  pound. 
Hay  costs  now  half  a  guinea  a 

hundred. 

NUMBER. 

Eggs  have  been  sold  as  high 
as  twenty-pence  a  dozen — 
and  cabbages  as  much  as 
two  dollars  a  hundred. 


Remark,  that  in  the  following  examples  and  the  like, 
the  Article  indicative  is  elegantly  rendered  by  the  Prepo- 
sition/?ar. 

EXAMPLES. 


EUe  donne  a  son  maitre  de 
musique  une  guinee  Jiar 
leQon. 

Je  prends  trois  lemons  d'armes 
par  semaine. 


She  gives  her  music  master  a 
guinea  a  or  per  lesson. 

I  take  three  lessons  in  fencing 
a  week. 


RULE    V. 

Whenever  the  word  some  be  expressed  or  understood, 
in  English,  before  a  Nciiny  singular  or  plural,  or  an  Adjec* 


340 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


the  preceding  a  Noun,  in  the  singular  only,  it  is  rendered 
in  French,  by  du,  de  la^  de  l\  or  des^  and  accords  with  the 
gender  and  number  and  the  initial  letter  of  the  Sub- 
stantive. 

EXAMPLES 
FOR  THE  NOUN,  SINGULAR  OR  PLURAL. 


Envoyez-moi  du  poisson,  de 
V  ail,  de  I*  huile,  de  la  mou- 
tarde  &  des  anchois. 

J'ai  achete  du  papier,  de  la  cire 
a  cacheter,  de  /'  encre  Sc  des 
plumes  toutes  taillees. 


Send  me  some  fish,  some  gar- 
lic, oil,  mustard,  and  ancho- 
vies. 

I  have  bought  paper,  seahng- 
wax,  ink,  and  some  ready 
made  pens. 


EXAMPLES 
FOR  THE  ADJECTIVE,  IN  THE  SINGULAR. 


Du  bon  pain  8c  de  la  bonne 

viande  suffisent  a  1'  homme 

temperant. 
II  nous  a  envoye  de  /'excellent 

fromage,  mais  du  mauvais 

beurre. 


Good  bread  and  meat  suffice 
a  temperate  man. 

He  sent  us  excellent  cheese, 
but  bad  butter. 


RULE  VI. 

If  the  word  some  be  placed  or  understood  before  one  of 
those  Adjectives,  whose  correspondents,  in  French,  are 
put  before  their  Nouns,  and  are  in  the  plural  number,  the 
preposition  de  alone  must  be  placed  before  the  former — 
If  the  Adjective  be  one  of  these  that  may  change  place 
and  come  so  immediately  after  the  Noun,  de  is  changed 
for  des  (*). 


EXAMPLES. 


II  a  de  beaux  chevaux  dans  son 

ecurie. 
Ce  boulanger  fournit  de  bons 

pains  ^  ses  pratiques. 
J'ai  vu  de  bonnes  viandes,  a  la 

boucherie. 
De  celeb  res  auteurs  (*  ou  des 

auteurs    celebres)    pensent 

ainsi. 


He  has  fine  horses  in  his  sta- 
ble. 

This  baker  supplies  his  custo- 
mers with  good  loaves. 

I  saw  good  meats,  at  the  mar- 
ket. 

Celebrated  authors  think  so. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  241 

Scholar. 

You  appear  to  differ  very  widely  in  opinion  with  the 
writers  of  French  grammars  for  the  use  of  Englishman. 
They  all  maintain  invariably  that  de  (preposition),  answer- 
ing to  some  expressed  or  understood,  must  always  be  used 
before  an  Adjective,  whether  singular  or  plural,  when  pre- 
ceding its  Noiiri',  for  instance  ;  insteadof  saying  with  you, 
"  du  bon  pain  &  de  la  bonne  viande  suffisent,  "  &cc.  they 
would,  according  to  their  rule,  say,  "  de  bon  pain  &  de 
bonne  viande  suffisent,"  &c. 

Master. 

This  impropriety  of  expression  struck,  not  long  ago, 
some  of  our  best  grammarians,  who  maintained,  that  a 
preference  should  be  given  to  the  mode  of  expression  I 
recommend,  and  which  now  begins  to  be  also  sanctioned 
by  polite  custom.  In  fact,  when  you  say,  "  de  bon  pain  8c 
de  bonne  viande  suffisent, "  owing  to  the  pronunciation, 
which  is  the  same,  in  both  cases,  one  cannot  discriminate, 
whether  you  do  mean,  de  bom-  pain^  &:  de  bonne*  viande* 
suffisent,  &c.  the  meaning  of  which  is  very  different. 

By  analysing  those  two  modes,  it  might  easily  be  proved 
that  not  only  perspicuity,  but  logic  entitles  our  mode  of 
expression  to  a  just  preference.  Nor  am  I  deficient  in 
the  best  authorities  on  my  side  of  the  question  ;  such  are, 
DoMERGUE,  Fabre,  and  Sicard. 

Please  to  give  your  attention  to  the  following  rule, 
which  is  rather  difficult,  and  has  been  very  wrongly  ex- 
plained in  such  French  grammars  as  have  fallen  into  my 
hands. 

RULE  VII. 

When  a  French  Noun  is  accompanied  by  several  AdjeC' 
tiveSy  the  Article  must  be  repeated  before  each  of  them,  if 
they  do  not  qualify  the  same  object  individually,  although 
the  same  Noun  maybe  qualified — But,  should  the  Adjec- 
tives qualify  both  the  Noun  and  an  object  which  is  the 
same  individually,  the  repetition  of  the  Article  may  be  dis- 
pensed with. 

EXAMPLES 
WITH  THE  REPETITION  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 
Le  bon  Sc  le  mauO  CThe  good  and  bad 

vais  fruit,  ou        I      ne  sont  pas  en-    J      fruits  are  not  yet 
Le  bon  fruit  &:  /e  f         core  cueillis         j       gathered, 
mauvais.  J  L 

VOL.    II.  I  i 


242 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


LesYieux  ^les  nou- 
veaux  soldats,  ou 

Les  vieux  soldats  Sc 
les  nouveaux. 


^The  old  and   new 
firent  des  merveil-J      soldiers  did  won- 
les.  \      ders. 


\ 


In  the  above  examples  it  is  evident  that  the  sense  re- 
quires the  repetition  ol  the  Article ;  as  bon  £^  mauvai.s  can- 
not q&alify  the  same  object ;  for  a  thing  cannot  be  good 
and  bad  at  the  same  time,  which  would  imply  a  contra* 
diction — Two  kinds  of  fruit  must,  therefore,  be  contrasted 
together  ;  one  good  and  the  other  bad — The  Article  must 
then  be  repeated^  as  there  are  two  nouns  implied,  though 
one  only  be  expressed.  The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the 
second  example  as  well  as  to  all  others  oi  the  same  kind, 

EXAMPLES 
WITHOUT  THE  REPETITION  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 


La  sage  Sc  belle  femO 


sage 


me,  ou 
La    femme 
belie. 

La   chaste 

bergere,  ou 
La  bergere  chaste 

limide. 


CThe  wise   and  hand- 
(  que  vous  avez J       some    woman    you 
&  \       epousee.       j      have  married. 

J  L 


&   timide 


"^  CThe  chaste  and  bash- 

!  qui  conduit  son  J      ful  shepherdess  who 
&  I       troupeau.       \      teuus  her  flock. 


In  the  preceding  examples  the  two  Adjectives  concur 
to  qualify  an  object  which  is  the  same  tndividualh,^  us 
there  is  but  one  woman  who  is  both  sage  and  bellc^  ana  one 
shepherdess  who  is  both  chaste  and  bashful, 

I  shall  conclude,  by  observing,  that  the  manner  in 
which  the  above  rule  is  treated  ot  in  French  gi'ammars, 
will  not  shelter  the  scholar  from  making  blunders  j  for, 
in  them,  it  is  generally  thus  explained, 

*••  If  a  Substantive  be  accompanied  by  several  Adjectives., 
*'  the  Article  is  to  be  repeated  before  both  Adjectives,  when 
*'  they,  each  of  them,  imply  opposite  qualities;  otherwise 
^'  the  Article  is  used  before  the  jirst  Adjective  only." 

According  to  this  rule  we  could  not  say,  in  French, 


Les  beaux  Sc  ks  jolis  objets 
n'inspirent  pas  les  memes 
scntimens. 


Handsome  and  pretty  objects 
do  not  inspire  the  same  feel- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


243 


For  beaux  ^nd  jolis  are  nearly  synonymous  terms :  but  lo- 
gic, which  binds  more  than  the  rules  of  grammar,  would 
reprove  this  construction ;  and  though  the  two  epithets 
be  nearly  synonymous^  yet,  as  the  matter  does  not  relate 
to  objects  altogether,  beaux  ^ndjoiis^  but  to  some  that  are 
exclusively  btuux,  and  some  that  are  exclusively  ^o/av,  it 
requires  that  the  Article  be  repeated.  Our  rule,  being 
founded  on  a  distinctron  of  objects  (which  distinction  pre- 
cludes any  error)  must,  of  consequence,  be  more  correct 
than  theirs,  which  is  founded  only  on  the  vague  and  many 
time?,  fanciful  comparison  oi  opposite  or  synonymous  mean- 
ing of  Adjectives. 

RULE  VIII. 

Whenever  a  Noun' is  preceded  by  an  Adjective,  in  the 
superlative^  the  Article  is  used  but  once. 


EXAMPLES 
WITHOUT  THE  REPETITION  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 


Les  plus  habiles  gens  font 
quelquefois  les  plus  gros- 
siei'cs  fautes. 

II  parle  d*  un  des  plus  savans 
horn  me  s. 

Les  plus  siirs  moyens  ne  sont 
pas  toujours  permis. 

Les  plus  pi'ofondes  pensees  & 
les  plus  brillantcs  idees  sont 
toujours  les  fruits  du  genie. 


The  most  skilful  men  some- 
times commit  the  grossest 
blunders. 

He  speaks  of  one  of  the  most 
learned  men. 

The  surest  means  are  not  al- 
ways lawful. 

The  most  profound  thoughts 
and  most  brilliant  ideas  are 
always  the  fruits  of  genius. 


RULE  IX. 

But  should  the  Adjective  be  placed  after  the  Noun^  the 
Article  is  repeated  immediately  before  the  Adjective. 


EXAMPLES 
WITH  THE  REPETITION  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 

Les  gens  les  plus  habiles  font  quelquefois  les  fautes  les 
plus  grossieres. 

II  parle  d'  un  des  hommes  les  plus  savans, 

Les  moyens  les  plus  siirs  ne  sont  pas  toujours  permis. 

Les  pensees  les  plus  profondes  8c  les  idecs  Its  plus  bril- 
lantcs sont  toujours  les  fruits  du  genie. 


'2U 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Master. 
Though  it  must  appear  to  you  that  the  French  delight 
in  often  using  the  Article  where  it  might  be  dispensed 
with,  as  is  done,  in  English,  in  corresponding  cases,  yet 
they  suppress  it  in  several  cases,  where,  in  English,  it 
must  be  expressed.  Your  attention  to  the  following,  con- 
cerningthe  suppression  of  the  Indicative  Article^  will  serve 
effectually  to  secure  you,  in  such  cases,  from  Anglicisms. 

RULE    X. 

The /72^/c«^/t;e  Article  le  Sec  is  not  expressed,  in  French, 
before  Ordinal  numbers  ;  1st.  When  the  preceding  Noun 
is  mentioned  with  a  view  of  quoting  it,  or  as  a  title  of  a 
book  :  2dly.  When  they  are  annexed  to  proper  names,  to 
distinguish  the  same  proper  names  from  one  another. 

EXAMPLES. 


Livre  premier^  chapitre  second, 
paragraph  e  trois^  section 
six, 

George  premier,  second,  trois, 

Louis  seize,  Roi  do  France,  fut 
assassine  le  vingt-un  Janvier, 
mil  sept  cent  quatre-vingt- 
treize. 


Book  the  first,  chapter  the  se- 
cond, paragraph  the  third, 
section  the  sixth. 

George  the  first,  the  second,  the 
third. 

Lewis  the  sixteenth,  king  of 
France,  was  murdered  the 
twenty-first  of  January,  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and 
ninety-three. 


RULE  XL 

The  Indicati'de  Article  is  also  suppressed  in  the  follow- 
ing modes  of  expressions  and  the  like. 

EXAMPLES. 


Mieux   vous    etudiez,    mieux 

vous  apprenez. 
Plus   une  chose    est   difficile, 

plus  elle  est  honorable. 
Plus  une  femme  est  belle,  plus 

elle  doit  etre  modeste. 

Moins  on  est  riche,  moins  on  a 

d'  embarras. 
Plutot  vous  aurez  ecrit  votre 

devoir,  plutdt  vous  sortirez. 


The  more  you  study,  tife  more 

you  learn. 
The  more  difficult  a  thing  is, 

the  more  honourable  it  is. 
The  more  handsome  a  woman 

is,    the    more    modest     she 

ought  to  be. 
The  less  rich  one  is,  the   less 

trouble  one  has. 
The  sooner  you   have   written 

your  exercise,  the  sooner  you 

will  go  out. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


245 


RULE  XII. 

Before  a  Noun  common^  modifying  and  immediately  fol- 
lowing one  preceding  it,  the  Indicative  and  Declarative 
Articles  are  suppressed. 

EXAMPLES. 


Voltaire  est  ne  a  Paris,  ville 
capitale  de  France. 

Guiilaume  Bingham,  Ecuyer, 
mourut  a  Bath,  ville  d'  An- 
gle terre. 

J'ai  Ui  la  Vengeance,  tragedie 
ceiebre  du  Dr.  Young,  &  la 
Femnie  Jalouse,  comedie 
excellente  de  Colman. 

Telemaque,  flls  d'  Ulysse,  Roi 

d'  Ithaque. 
Marie-Therese,  Imfieratrice  d' 

Allemagne. 
Le  Due  d'  i  ork,  Prince  du  sang 

Iloyal  d'Angleterre. 


Voltaire  was  born  at  Paris,  the 
cafiital  of  France. 

WiUiam  Bingham,  Esquire, 
died  at  Bath,  a  city  of  Eng- 
land. 

I  have  read  the  Revenge,  a 
celebrated  tragedy  of  Dr. 
Young,  and  the  Jealous  Wife 
an  excellent  comedy  of  Col- 
man. 

Telemachus, /f/^e  5072  of  Ulysses 
King  of  Ithaca. 

Maria-Theresa,  the  Empress  of 
Germany. 

The  Duke  of  York,  a  Prince 
of  the  Royal  blood  of  Eng- 
land. 


RULE   XIIL 

Nouns  common  stand  without  Articles,  when  an  appeal 
is  made,  or  an  exclamation  used. 

EXAMPLES. 


O  heros  de  la  France  !  C'  est  a 

toi  de  retablir  la  religion  de 

nos  peres. 
Roisl  soyez  attentifs.  PeufilesI 

pretez  1'  oreille. 
Courage  !   Matelots^  a  I'abor- 

dage. 


O  hero  of  France  !  It  becomes 

thee  to  restore  the  religion 

of  our  forefathers. 
Kings  I  be  attenUve.  Nations ! 

listen. 
Courage  I      Sailors,      let      us 

board. 


RULE  XIV. 

The  Article  may  also  be  omitted  in  the  enumeration  of 
objects,  in  the  most  general  sense,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  the  diction  more  lively. 


146 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


EXAMPLES. 


Femmes,  enfans^  vieillards^  trou- 
peaux^  cabannes^  inaisons^pa- 
lais^  tout  fut  englouti  par  bt- 
flots  de  la  nier. 

Cet  hommc  ii'a  ni  vice  m  vertu  \ 
ni  talcns  ni  defauts ;  ni  pas- 
sions d'  aucune  especc. 


iVomen,  children^  old  mrn^  huts^ 
Jiocks^  houses^  Jialaces,  all  was 
svvallowed  up  by  the  waves 
of  the  sea. 

This  man  has  neither  vices 
nor  virtues ;  neither  talents 
nor  defects  ;  nor  passions  of 
any  kind. 


RULE  XV. 

No  Article  is  used  after  the  Preposition  en  and  other 
Prepositions,  when  they,  with  the  following  Noun,  li^ive 
the  sense  of  an  Adjective^  or  of  an  Adverb. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  regarde  tout  le  monde  en 

pitie. 
II  me  re^ut  avec  amitie. 

II  est  sans  amis. 


He  looks  on  every  body  nvith 

contempt. 
He   received    me  kindly  (or, 

with  kindness.) 
He  is  without  friends. 


Note^  a  number  of  French  verbs  will  admit  of  no  Arti' 
tie  between  them  and  the  follow^ing  Noun,  which  is  their 
complement — A  list  of  such  of  them  that  occur  more 
frequently  in  conversation,  is  subjoined  at  the  end  of  this 

instruction* 

RULE  XVL 

The  Declarative  Article  used,  in  English,  after  the  Verb 
to  be^  before  a  Noun  expressing  title^  profession^  trade, 
coitntrif^  or  other  attribute  of  the  preceding  Noun,  is 
omitted,  in  French — but  should  etre  be  preceded  by  ccy 
then  the  Declarative  Article  must  be  used. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  est  marcliand  ou 
marchand. 


est  un  j  He  is  a  shop-keeper. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


247 


On  in'a  dit  qu'il  6t?iit  negociant 
ou  que  c'  etait  un  ne^oci- 
ant. 

II  se  vante  que  son  pere  est 
noble,  Sc  moi,  je  crois  qu'  il 
est  roturier  ou  que  c'  est  un 
roturier. 

II  est  ou  Fran^ais,  ou  Italien, 
ou  EspagDol  ou  c'  est  ou 
un  I  rar^ais,  ou  un  Ittilien, 
ou  u?i  Lspagnol. 


I  was  told  he  was  a  merchant. 


He  boasts  of  his  father  being 
a  r.obieman,  and  I  believe 
he  is  a  plebiean. 

He  is  either  a  Frenchman,  an 
Italian,  or  a  Spaniard. 


RULE  XVII. 

In  the  following  cases,  the  Declarative  Article  is  not  ex- 
pressed in  French  :  1st,  Before  a  Noun  beginning  an  in- 
cidental phrase,  which  is  a  reflection  on  what  has  been 
precedently  said. 

EXAMPLES. 


Cet  artiste  a  obtenu  cinq  cents 
guinees  :  recompense  qu'  il 
meritait  bien. 

Fontenelle  etait  membre  de 
r  Academic  Fran^aise,  Sc  de 
celle  des  Sciences :  Jireuve 
de  runiversaiite  de  ses  ta- 
lens. 


This  artist  has  obtained  five 
hundred  guineas  :  a  reward 
he  weH  deserved. 

Fontenelle  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and 
that  of  the  Sciences:  a  proof 
of  the  extent  of  his  ta- 
lents. 


Sdly.  Before  the  title  of  a  book,  or  any  other   per- 
formance. 

EXAMPLES. 


Dictionnaire    Critique    de    la 

langue  Fran^aise. 
Hhtoire     d'  Angleterre,     par 

Hume. 
Plan  de  la  ville  de  Philadel- 

phie. 


A  Critical  Dictionary  of  the 
French  Language. 

The  History  of  England,  by 
Hume. 

A  Flan  of  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia. 


3dly.  After  the  word  queU  &:c.  (what)  when  used  to  ex- 
press surprise. 

EXAMPLES. 

Quel  homme  vous  etes  !  ]  What  a  man  you  are  ! 

Quel  tintamarre  vous  fuites  I       I  What  a  thundering  noise  you 

I      make ! 


248  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

Quelle  nouvelle  vous  m'  appre- 1  What  a  piece  of  news  yoy  tell 


Master. 

Your  particular  attention  is  now  required  to  a  mode  of 
expression,  which,  as  it  is  truly  idiomatical  for  the  French 
themselves,  must  appear  very  strange  to  you.  The  fol- 
lowing rule5  will  explain  it. 

RULE  XVIII. 

Whenever  ttoo  Nouns  are  joined  together,  in  English, 
if  the  first  adjectively  modify  the  second,  and,  without 
trespassing  on  sense,  may  be  transposed  after  the  second, 
by  placing  the  Preposition  wzVA,  or  such  an  equivalent  as 
havings  containing^*  &c.  before  it  ;  then,  in  French,  the 
first  Noun  is  put  last^  and  is  joined  to  the  second  by  the 
Preposition  and  Articles— aw,  a /',  a /a,  awA;*,  according  to 
circumstances  of  gender  and  number. 

EXAMPLES. 


Appelez  r  homme  cT/beiirre — 
aux  huitres — a  la  volaille — 
a  I'  habit  gris — au  chapeau 
rond — ail  cou  tors — a  la  fi- 
gure rubiconde — awgrosnez 
— Sc  a  la  mine  patibulaire. 

Je  prefere  la  sauce  a7^jrcapres 
u  celle  au  vinaigre — aux 
ceufs  ou  a  V  oignon. 

On  nous  servit  de  la  soupe  au 
vermicel — au  riz — aux  pois 
— aux  choux — uii  poulet  a 
la  crapaudine  Sc  une  tourte  a 
V  anguille. 

Elle  vend  dans  sa  boutique  de 
la  poudre  a  /'  ceillet — a  la 
rose — &:  du  chocolat  a  la 
vanilie. 

*I1  demeure  aumarche  au  foin, 
ou  a  la  poissoniierie. 

II  a  casse  le  pot  a  /'  eau  2^  la 
bouteille  a  /'  encre. 


Call  the  butter-xci2LXi  \  the  oys- 
^er-man  ;  the  poultry -v(\2Ci\  ; 
the  man  nvith  a  grey-coat  ; 
nvith  a  round  hat ;  ivith  a  wry 
neck  ;  nvith  a  claret  face  ; 
tvith  a  big  nose  ;  ivith  a  gal- 
lows look. 

I  prefer  the  c«//er-sauce  to  the 
vinegar^  the  egg  or  onion 
sauce. 

They  served  us  with  vermicel- 
lif  with  ricc^  with  pease^ 
with  cubbage--AOU\),  a.  bar- 
6(?"WcY/-chicken,  and  an  eel^ 
pye. 

She  sells  in  her  sliop  pink-scen- 
ted^ roue-scented  powder  and 
xJCwzY/a-chocolate. 

He  lives  at  the  hay  ov  Jish-mar- 

ket. 
He  has  broken  the   water-pot 

and  the  ink-bottle. 


SYNTAX  MAD£  easy. 


24^' 


Note,  that,  in  French,  the  Preposition  and  Article  are 
eometimes  rendered  by  the  Preposition  a  alone,  instead 
of  auy  a  la,  &c. 


EXAMPLES. 


Voulez-voiis  coucher  dans  le 

grenier  a  foin  ou  dans  celui 

able? 
Ilsuivait  lavoiture  a  huit  places 

dans    un   cabriolet   a  deux 

chevaux. 
Sa  boite  a  mouches  est  dans  la 

boite  a  poudre. 
On  servit  sur  la   table  a  dix 

converts  unecafetiere  a  vingt 

tasses. 


Will  you  lie  in  the  hay -loft  or 

in  the  corn-loft  ? 

He  followed  the  eight-seat 
coach  in  a  two-horse  chaise. 

Her  patch-box  is  in  the  powder- 
box. 

They  served  on  the  table  for 
ten  persons  a  twenty-dish 
coffee-pot. 


RULE  XIX. 

An  English  Adjective  expressing  the  idea  of  pattern  or 
resemblance  is  rendered,  in  French,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  first  Noun  in  the  preceding  rule  ;  it  becomes  then 
feminine,  in  the  singular,  and  is  substantively  taken. 

EXAMPLES- 


Les  habits  a  la  Fran^aise  sont 

a  present  aiamode. 
J'aitroque  ma  sellea/'Anglaise 

pour  une  a  la  Prussienne. 
II  porte  un  manteau  a  /'Espag- 

nole    Sc     des     bottes    a    /' 

Americaine. 


French  coats  are  now  fashion- 
able, or  in  fashion. 

I  bartered  my  English  saddle 
for  a  Prussian  one. 

He  wears  a  Spanish  cloak  and 
American  boots. 


RULE  XX. 

When  the  words  Jit,  good  are  understood,  in  English, 
before  the  second  Noun  when  transposed  as  above,  they 
are  rendered  by  the  Preposition  a. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  voudrais  avoir  une  terre  a 

bois  8c  une  a  ble. 
LacolUne  est  couverte  de  mou- 

lins  a   vent,  8c  la  vallee  de 

moulins  a  eau. 

YOL.  II.  1^  k 


I  wish  I  had  some  wood  land 
and  some  corn  land. 

The  hill  is  covered  with  wind- 
mills and  the  yalley  with 
water-mills. 


250 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  XXI. 

When,  in  English,  the/; a^?  Participle  of  a  Verb  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  Infinitive  to  be^  and  such  Adjectives  as  Jitj 
good^  in  French,  the  Adjective  fit  and  Infinitive  to  be  are 
both  rendered  by  the  Preposition  a,  and  the  past  Partici- 
ple is  rendered  by  the  Infinitive  of  the  corresponding 
Verb. 


EXAMPLE. 


C*est  une  fille  a  marier. 

Voild  du  bois  a   coufier  8c  des 

arbres  a  planter 
C  est  un  homme  a  mepriser. 
C  est  un  coquin  a  fiendre* 


She  is  a  girl  fit  to  be  married, 

or,  she  is  a  marriageable  girl. 

That  wood  is  fit  to  be  cut,  and 

those  trees  to  be  planted. 
That  is  a  man^;  to  be  despised. 
That  scoundrel  is  Jit  to  be  hung. 


Master. 

I  'have  not  yet  made  any  mention  of  the  Preposition 
de  which  sometimes  must  be  placed  between  the  two 
French  Nouns,  instead  of  c,  aw,  a  la  8cc.  To  prevent 
mistake,  I  hasten  to  acquaint  you  with  the  following 

RULE  XXIL 

When  two  Nouns  come  together,  in  English,  and  the 
second  is  said  to  be  composed  or  made  of  the  materials 
expressed  by  the  Jirst^  the  first  is,  in  French,  transposed 
after  the  second^  with  the  Preposition  de  preceding. 

EXAMPLES. 


II  aperdusatabatiere  rf'  or,  sa 
montre  d'  argent,  sa  chaine 
f/'  acier  8c  sa  bague  de  dia- 
mans. 

II  demeurait  dans  une  maison 
de  pierre,  a  present  il  de- 
meure  dans  une  maison  de 
brique. 

J'ai  besoin  de  six  paires  de  bas 
de  soie,  de  quatre  de  laine, 
de  dcux  de  coton  &:  d'une 
ds  fii. 


He  ha*  lost  his  gold  snufF-box, 
silver  watch,  steel  chain  and 
diamond  ring. 

He  lived  in  a  stone  house,  now 
he  lives  in  a  brick  house. 


I  want  six  pair  of  silk  stock- 
ings, four  worsted,  two  cot- 
ton and  one  thread. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


51 


II  porte  un  habit  de  velours 
noir,  un  gilet  d'  ecarlate  Sc 
une  culatte  de  casimir  bleu. 


He  wears  a  black  velvet  coat, 
a  scarlet  jacket  and  blue 
cassimere  breeches. 


Master. 

The  words  for  which  the  following  table  is  intended^ 
always  require  the  Preposition  de  after  them,  as, 


Genre,  m. 
II  mene  un  genre  de  vie  qu*on 
ne  saurait  approuver. 

Espece,  f. 

Quelle  eajiece  d'  homme  nous 
avez-vous  amene  la  ? 
SortCy  f. 
On  voyait  toute    sorte  rf'  ani- 
maux  dans  la  menagerie  du 
Roi. 

Melange,  f. 
La    jalousie    est  un    melange 
d'  amour   &  de   haine  ;    de 
crainte  8c  de  desseix)ir. 
Compose,  m. 
Cette  femme  est  un  com/wse  de 
bonnes    8c    de     mauvaises 
qualites. 
Ne  pas  ou  ne  point  (the  latter  mcrre 

forcible). 
II  n*  Sifias  ou  /loint  de  pain,  de 
vin,  de  viande,  d*  argent,  d' 
amis. 

( Ne)  jamais. 
JVe  me  parlez  jamais  de   ces 
chose  s-la,  ni  de  ce  coquin  de 
valet. 

Abondance,  f. 
ll  est  dans  /*  abondance  de'toM- 
tes  choses. 

Nombre,  m. 
J*  ai  \\i  nombre   de  sots    8c  de 
fats,   qui   se    croyaient    de 
grands  personnages. 

^antite,  f. 

II  a  recueilli  cette  annee  une 
grande  quantite  de  ble,  de 
foin  8c  de  fruit. 


Kind. 
He    leads  a  kind  of  life   one 
cannot  approve. 

Kindy  species. 

What  kind  of  a  man  have  you 
brought  us  here  ? 

Sort. 

All  sorts  o/*  animals  were  seen 
in  the  king's  menage. 

Mixture. 
Jealousy  is  a  mixture  of  love 
and  hatred  ;  of  fear  and  de- 
spair. 

Compound. 
This  woman  is  k  comfiound  of 
good  and  bad  qualities. 

Noy  not. 

He  has  no  bread,  720  wine,  no 
meat,  no  money,  no  friends. 

Never. 
JSTever  speak  to  me  about  those 
things  nor  that  rascally  ser- 
vant. 

Plenty. 

He  \s3J&  plenty  of  every  tiling. 

Number  or  many. 
I  have   seen   many  fools    and 
coxcombs  who  took  them- 
selves to  be  great  people. 

Numbery  quantity. 

He  has  had  this  year  a  large 
quantity  of  com,  hay  and 
fruitn 


25S 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


J'  ai  rencontre  guantite  de  ca- 
briolets, de  voitures,  de  car- 
rosses,   de  phaetons,   Sc  di 
beaux  chtvaux  de  selle. 
^lelque  chose,  m. 
II  a  tou jours  quelqiie  chose  dc 
jol^,  rf*  agreable  ^   de  gra- 
cieiix  a  dire  aux  gens. 
( i^e)  rien,  n). 
II  77,'  y  a  rien  dc  plus  insolent 
qu  'un  parvenu. 
Pen. 
Donne z-moi  un  peu  de  biere 

ou  de  cidre. 
Je  vous  dirai  en  fieu  de  mots 
toute  I'afiaire. 
Assez. 
II  y  a  assez  de  terns  que  je  vous 
attends. 

Plus,  tnolns. 
II  a  plus  dc  talens  &  de  merite 
que  son  frei'e  ;  mais  7nGins 
de   savoir-vivre   &  d*  usage 
du  monde. 

Autatit. 
EUe  a  autant  de  vertu  que  de, 
douceur  dans  le  caractere. 
Tunt. 
II  est  doue  de  tarit  d*  esprit  8c 
de  sagesse  qu'  il  reussira,  Sc 
il  a  tavt  ^'amis  qu'il  ne  nian- 
quera  jamais  de  rien. 

Trop. 

Cet  auteur  embrasse  tro/i  de 
matiereS)  de  faits  8c  de  de- 
tails. 

Cpmbien. 

Combien  de  fromages  avcz- 
vous  achetes  ?  combien  de 
livres  de  chandelle  avez-vous 
apporlees  ? 

II  y  avait  je  ne  sais  combien  de 
gens. 

%e  / 

^Quede  sang  repandu  danscette 
fatale  que  re  lie  I 

Que  de  chagrins  vous  aurez  a 
souffrir ! 


I  met  a  number  of  chairs,  car- 
riages, coaches,  phaetons 
and  fine  saddle  horses. 

Something. 
Ke  has  always  something  pret- 
ty, agreeable  and  kind  to  tell 
people. 

Nothmg. 

JSTothirig  is  more  insolent  than 
an  upstart. 

Little,  afev}. 
Give  me  a  little  beer  or  cider. 

I  will  tell  you  in  a  few  words 
the  whole  of  the  matter. 
Enough. 
I  have  been  waiting  for  you 
long  enough. 

More,  less. 
He  has  more  talents  and  merit 
than    his  brother,    but  less 
good  breeding  and  habit  of 
company. 

As  7nuch  as. 
She  has  as  much  virtue  as  mild- 
ness in  her  temper. 
So  much,  so  onayiy. 
He  is  endowed  with  so  muck 
understanding  and  wisdom 
that  he  will  succeed,  and  he 
has  so  many  friends  that  he 
will  never  want  any  thiiig. 
Too  WACch,  too  onany. 
This  author  embraces  toow.uch 
matter,  too  many   facts  and 
particulars. 

Havi  much,  how  tnany. 
How   much  cheese  have    you 
bought  ?   how  many  pounds 
of  candles  have  you  brought  ? 

There  were,  I  do  not  know, 

how  many  people. 

Hitvj  'much,  hovj  many  ! 
How  7nuch   blood   was  spilt  m 

this  fatal  quarrel  ! 
How  many  sorrows  you'll  have 

to  bear  I 


i 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


253 


^loi  ! 
Quoi  deplus  agreable  pour  des 
parens,  que  des  enfans  ver- 
tueux  &  bien  eleves  ! 
Beaucmp. 
II  y  a  beaiicQufi  de   bien,  mais 
ils  sont  bmucoup.  rf'  heritiers 
a  partager  cette  succession. 


What! 
What   is  more  agreeable  for 
parents  than  to  have  virtuous 
and  well  bred  children  ! 
Much,  Tnafiy'M 
There  is  much  property,  but 
this  estate  is  to  be  divided 
among  ?nany  heirs. 


EXCEPTION. 

Bien  when  it  means  much  or  many,  in  English,  is  an  exception;  for  in- 
stead of  the  Preposition  de  alone,  it  must  be  followed  by  that  Preposition 
and  the  Article  Indicative. 


EXAMPLES. 

du  monde  a  la 


II  y  avait  bien 

comedie. 
II  y    a   bien   des  gens  cfui 

croient  ainsi. 


le 


There  were  fnany  people  at  the 

play. 
There  are  many  people   who 

believe  it  so. 


254 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


255 


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256 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


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SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 


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SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


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SYNtAX  MADE  EASY. 


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SYNTAX  MAD£  EASY. 


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SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


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VOL.     II. 


M  m 


266 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 


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SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


267 


INSTRUCTION  THE  THIRD. 

OF  THE  JVOUJV. 

RULE  I. 

When  two  Nouns  in  English  are  joined  merely  by  a  Pre^ 
position,  or  a  Preposition  and  Article,  either  of  these  are 
generally  rendered  by  de  with  the  Article  Indicative,  or 
by  the  Preposition  and  Article  contracted,  according  to 
circumstances  of  gender  and  number. 

EXAMPLES. 


L'  ^tude  de  la  geometi'ie  est 

fort  utile. 
L'  eglise  est  batie  sur  le  som- 

met  de  la  colline. 
La  grandeur  des  vues  &  la  pro- 

fondeurrfesidees,  annoncent 

r  homme  de  genie. 


The  study  o/* geometry  is  very 

useful. 
The  church  is  built  on  the  top 

of  the  hill. 
Greatness  o/'Tievvs,  and  deptli 

of  ideas,  bespeak  the  man 

of  genius. 


Remark,  that  when  two  Nouns,  in  English,  are  united 
by  «  with  an  apostrophe  (thus  '*),  in  French,  the  first 
Noim  is  to  be  placed  last,  and  the  Preposition  de  with  the 
Article,  or  the  contraction  thereof,  between  the  two  Nouns. 


EXAMPLES. 


J*  ai  vu  les  chevaux  du  Roi  & 
les  appartemens  de  la  Reine. 

Le  premier  soin  d'  un  homme 
est  d'  eviter  les  reproches  de 
sa  conscience,  ^^  son  second, 
la  censure  du  monde. 

La  soeur  de  la  femme  de 
chambre  de  la  favorite  de  la 
Reine,  vient  de  se  marier. 


I  saw  the  King's  horses,  and 
the  Queen's  apartments. 

A  man's  first  concern,  is  to 
avoid  the  reproaches  of  his 
conscience,  and  his  second, 
the  world's  censure. 

The  Queen's  favorite's  cham- 
bermaid's sister  is  just  mar- 
ried. 


But,  if  the  first  Noun,  in  English,  were  preceded  by  an 
Article  demonstrative  or  possessive,  or  were  it  a  proper 
name,  the  Preposition  de  should  then  stand  alone  without 
the  Article. 

EXAMPLES. 

Le  langage  de  cet  homme  est  I  This  man's  language  is  inde- 
indecent.  I       cant. 


26S 


STNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Avez-vous  vu  la  bibliotheque 

4(^mon  pere? 
J'  ai  troiive  1'  eventail  Sc  les 

gantb  de  Julie. 
Avez-vous    re9U   le    billet   de 

Madcmoiseile  K I 


Did  you  see  my  father's  li- 
brary ? 

I  have  found  Julia's  fan  and 
gloves. 

Did  you  receive  Miss  K '* 

note? 


RULE  II. 

When  Nouns  of  measure  such  as  inch,  foot',  fathom,  e/l, 
yard,  are  followed,  in  English,  by  Adjectives  of  dimension 
such  as  lonj,  wide,  he.  or  their  abstract  Nouns,  length, 
width,  &c,  then  the  abstract  Nouns  of  dimension  are  used, 
in  French,  with  the  Preposition  de  preceding  them,  which 
must  also  be  placed  before  the  numerical  Article  specify- 
ing the  number  of  times  that  the  Noun  of  the  measure  is 
understood, 

EXAxAlPLES. 


J'  ai  saute  un  fosse  de  trente 
pieds  de  largcur. 

C  est  une  riviere  de  quinze 
brasses  de  profondeur. 

II  me  faut  des  planches  de 
vingt  sept  poucesr/e  longue- 
ur &  de  quatre  d'  epaisseur. 

Voila  \m  clocher  de  trois  cents 
pieds  de  hauteur. 


I  jumped  over  a  ditch  thirty- 
feet  wide  or  in  width. 

it  13  a  river  fifteen  fathoms 
deep. 

I  v/ant  boards  twenty-seven 
inches  in  length  and  four  in- 
ches in  thickness. 

That  is  a  steeple  three  hundred 
feet  high. 


Observe  1st,  that  when  two  dimensions,  belonging  to 
the  same  object,  are  mentioned,  the  Preposition  sur  will 
elegantly  replace  the  Conjunction  £9*  and  the  Preposition 
de;  so  we  may  well  say, 


Les  murs  d'  Alger  ont  seize 
pieds  d'  epaisseur  sur  trente 
de  hauteur. 


The  walls  of  Algiers  are  six- 
teen feet  thick,  and  thirty 
feet  high. 


2d,  If,  as  in  the  examples  following,  the  verb  to  be,  be 
used,  the  Preposition  de  should  be  omitted  before  the  mi- 
merical  Article,  and  etre  rendered  bv  avoir. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


2«y 


EXAMPLES. 

Kotre  jardin  a  cent  cinquanteN 

pieds  de  longueur    &   qua- 1  Our  garden   is  one   hundred 
rante  huit  dc  largeur,  ou       V     and  fifty  feet  long,  and  Ibrty 

Notre   jardin  a  150  pieds  rfe  I      eight  feet  wide, 
longueur,  .swr  A^  de  largeur.y 


L'  eglise  de  St.  Paul  a  500 
pieds  aV  longueur  en  dedans ; 
100  de  largeur  a  V  entree  ; 
mais  249  d'  un  portique  a 
1'  autre. 


St.  Paul's  church  is  500  feet 
long  within  ;  100  feet  front; 
but  249  from  the  porticos. 


Master. 
Though  it  be  more  elegant,  in  French,  to  use  the  ab^ 
stract  Nouns  of  dimension  than  the  Adjectives^  yet  the  lat- 
ter may  also  be  used,  as  you  will  see  in  the  following 

EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  achete  un  tapis  lo^ig  de 
six  verges  &  large  de  deux. 

On  a  bati  une  murailie  e/iaisse 
de  douze  pieds. 


I  bought  a  carpet   six  yard's 

lo7ig^  and  two  wide. 
They  have  built  a  wall  twelve 

feet  thick* 


RULE  III.  , 

When  the  titie^  rank,  or  degree  of  kindred  of  a  person 
in  a  high  or  respectable  station,  is  mentioned,  polite  cus- 
tom often  requires  that  such  expressions  as,  Blonseigneur^ 
Monsieur^  Madame  or  Mademoiselle^  should  be  pronounced 
before  the  name  of  the  indivicKial  entitled  to  that  distinc- 
tion. 

EXAMPLES. 


Monseigneiir  le  Prisce  de  Gal- 
les  est  r  heritier  presomp- 
tif  de  la  courronne  d'  An- 
gle ter  re. 

Monsieur  le  Colonel  Williams 
b'  est  marie  hier  au  soir. 

J'  ai  cause  au  bal  avec  Ma- 
dame votre  tante  &;  danse 
avec  Mademoiselle  sa  fille. 


The  Prince  of  Wales  is  the 
heir-apparent  of  the  crown 
of  England. 

Colonel  Williams  was  married 

last  evening. 
I  conversed  at  the   ball  with 

your  aunt  and  danced  with 

her  daughter. 


Remark,  that,  when  we  speak  oiour  own  relations,  then^ 
as  tenderness  should  prevail  over  formality,  such  expres* 
sionij  as  above  stated,  are  omitted. 


uro 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

Master. 


We  are  now  come  to  a  very  nice  point  in  the  French 
language ;  it  relates  to  the  law  of  accord  or  of  concordance: 
and,  as  the  observance  thereof,  together  with  its  excep- 
tions, constitute  some  of  the  principal  difficulties  of  the 
French  language,  I  advise  you  to  give  particular  attention 
to  the  following  rules. 

RULE  IV. 

The  A^oun  imposes  its  inflections  on  all  its  correspond- 
ents, viz.  on  the  Article,  which  determines  it;  op  the  Ad^ 
jective  and  Participle,  which  qualify  it ;  on  the  Pronoun, 
which  recalls  it  to  the  mind  ;  and  on  the  Verb,  which  an- 
nounces the  object  which  the  Noun  denominates,  as  ex- 
isting. 


EXAMPLES. 


Le  plaisir,  qui  ne  laissc  apres 
soi  que  des  remords,  est  de- 
fendu  aux  homines,  parce 
qu'  it  est  criirdneL 

Lcs  consolations  Ics  plus  t07i- 
chanti's  sojit  cclles  qui  nous 
^ont  offertea  par  la  Religion. 

Ames  donees  Sc  paisibies,  qui 
ne  voulcz  que  dcs  joins  se- 
reins £c  des  senlimens  agre- 
ablesj  ne  desirez  pas  les 
hautes  places. 


Pleasure,  which  leaves  behind 
it  nothing  but  remorse,  is 
forbidden  to  man,  because  it 
is  criminal. 

The  most  striking  consolations 
are  offered  to  us  by  Reli- 
gion. 

Gentle  and  peaceful  souls,  nvho 
only  want  serene  days  and 
agreeable  feelings,  do  not 
wish  for  high  stations. 


You  see  that  in  the  first  of  the  above  sentences,  the 
Noun,  plaisir,  makes  the  words  in  Italics  assume  the  m- 
Jlections  they  are  liable  to,  viz.  the  Articles  and  Adjec- 
tives, \K.^  gender,  which  is  mascidiney  and  its  number,  which 
is  singular  ;  and  the  Verb,  the  third  person  singular,  be- 
cause that  Noun  is  the  thing  spoken  of. 

In  the  5(?cc72^ example,  the  Noun,  consolations,  be'in^ plu- 
ral femifiine,  the  Articles  and  Adjectives  become  so,  while 
the  Verb  is  in  the  third  person  plural. 

In  the  thJrd  example,  a?Jtes  being  in  the  second  person 
plural,  the  Verbs  vaulez  and  desirez,  its  correspondents, 
are  also  put  in  the  second  person  pluraL 


SYNTAX  MADE  JIASY. 


271 


If  you  reflect  that  an  object  could  not  be  denominated 
under  a  gender  and  number,  and  be  announced,  qualified, 
recalled,  and  presented  as  existing  by  its  correspondents 
under  a  different  gender  and  number,  without  producing 
a  shocking  oddity  that  would  render  vague  and  doubt- 
ful the  relations  of  words  with  the  ideas  they  are  de- 
signed to  portray,  you  will  easily  conceive  why  all  the 
words  we  have  just  noticed  should  appear  with  these  in- 
flections ;  and  this  more  necessarily,  as  such  a  character  of 
uniformity  can  alone  manifest  their  dependence  upon  the 
Hero  of  the  phrasei(the  Noun)  for  the  sake  of  which  they 
are  used. — However  rational  this  rule  of  concordance  may 
appear,  it  is  still  liable  to  many  exceptions,  which  custom^ 
that  imperious  lav^-giver  to  language,  and  to  whom  even 
philosophers  must  often  bow,  has  introduced. — Of  these, 
without  entering  into  any  superfluous  logical  details,  I  will 
inform  you ;  my  design,  in  this  Section,  being  to  acquaint 
you  solely  with  the  particulars  of  the  French  syntax. 

REMARK  I. 

Several  Nouns  sw^Vcf 5,  occurring  in  a  sentence,  although 
singular  and  of  diff'erent  genders,  impose  on  their  corres- 
pondents the  plural  number  and  masculine  gender. 

EXAMPLES. 


Le  merite  8c  la  vertu  sont  seuls 
fails  pour  plaire  toujoiirs. 

Le  mari  8c  la  femme  sont  tou- 
jours  malheureuxy  lors  qu'  il 
ne  regne  pas  entr'  eux  V 
union  la  plus  parfaite. 

Notre  valet  &  notre  servante 
sont  fiaresseux^  impertincnSy 
8c  raisonneurs. 


Merit  and  virtue  are  alone  Jit» 
ted  Lo  be  always  pleasing. 

A  husband  and  wife  are  alwa)^ 
iinhafipy,  when  the  most  per- 
fect harmony  does  not  reign 
betv.een  them. 

Our  man  and  our  maid  are 
lazy^  impn'tiiienty  Z-Tidi  fond  of 
retorting. 


But,  should  the  Nouns  be  objects  instead  of  being  «/^ 
jects^  then  the  correspondent  should  follow  in  number  and 
gender  those  of  the  last  Noun. 


EXAMPLES. 

Cette  femme  a  1*  air  &  la  phy-") 

sionomie  spirituelk^  ou  I  This  woman  has  a  ^fing-Mp 

Cette  femme  a  la  physionomie  [      air  and  countenRnce. 

&  1'  air  filuritueU  J 


273 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Jl  avail  la  bouche  &c  les  yeux" 
ouvertsi  ou 

II  avait  les  yeux  8c  la  bouche 
ouvefte. 

Cetacteur  joire  avec  uii  gout  Sc" 
une  noblesse  charmante^  ou 

Cet  acteur  joue  avec  iine  no- 
blesse 8c  un  gout  cha'^mant^ 

II  a  la  tete  8c  les  pieds  nus^  ou 

II  a  les  pieds  8c  la  tete  nue. 


He  had  his  eyes  and  mouth 
ofieiu 


This  actor  performs  with  tast& 
and  a  cliarming  dignity. 

His  head  and  feet  are  naked. 


REMARK  11. 


Nouns,  of  number  expressing  a  quantity  or  multitude  of 
objects  characterised  by  another  Noun^  require  their  fol- 
lowing correspondents  to  agree  in  gender  and  number  with 
this  last^  v/hich  is  always  preceded  by  the  Preposition  de^ 
except  v/hen  la  plupnrt  is  used,  which  last,  like  bien^  re- 
quires the  Preposition  and  Article  du,  de  le,  &c.  after  it. 


EXAMPLES. 


Une  douzaine  d'  cnians  fure?it 

tues  le  meme  jour. 
Une  centAine  de  femmes  fa- 
rent    ensevelies      sous      les 

mines. 
Le  peu  de  forces  qu'  avait  ce 

malade  ne  so7it  pas  perdues. 
La  moitie  de  ses  forces  lui  re- 

stent  fideles. 
II  n'  est  sorte  de  soins  qui  ne 

lui  soient  rendus  par  le  peu 

d^  amis   qui  ne   1'  out  pas 

abandonne. 
tJne    foule    de    monde    s'   est 

trou-ue  a  ce  spectacle, 
yne  foule  de  soldats  072t  ete 

fusilles. 
Une  infinite  de  monde  est  in- 

qidei  sur  son  sort. 
Une  infinite  de  personnes  en 

s(jnt  instruiies, 
Un  grand  nombre  de  person- 
'  nes  onf  ete  meconte'ntes. 
Une  grande  quantite  de  dames 

cimnit  presentes  u  ce  bal* 


Twelve  children  were  killed  the 
same  day. 

A  hundred  women  iuer£  bu- 
ried under  the  ruins. 

The  little  strength  which  this 

patient  had,  iswoi  destroyed. 
The  half  of  his  troops  remain 

faithful  to  him. 
Thei'e  is  no  kind  of  attention 

which  is  not  fiaid  him  by  the 

few  friends  who  have   not 

forsaken  him. 
A    crowd    of  people    luas    at 

that  show  or  exhibition. 
A  great  number   of  soldiers 

ivcre  alvA, 
Vast  numbers  «rd'  uneasy  about 

his  fate. 
Vast  numbers  are  acquainted 

ivith  it. 
A  great  num.be r  o/" people  have 

been  discontented, 
A  great  number  o/" ladies  were 

present  at  that  ball. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


273 


Toute  sorte  dc  livres  ne  sont 
pas  egalement  Boris. 

11  n'  est-  sorte  de  demonstra- 
tions de  politesse  qu'  il  ne 
lui  ait  faites, 

Une  partie  dea  arbres  qui  me 

restent  sont  charges  de  fruits. 

Une  troupe  de  Nyniphes  cou- 
ronnees  de  fleurs  etaicnt  as- 
sises aupres  d'  elle. 

La  plupart  du  monde  s*  endort 
sur  ses  propres  interets. 

La  plupart  t/f*  femmes  ont  plus 
d'  esprit  que  de  savoir. 


All  kind  of  books  are  not 
equally  good. 

There  are  no  demonstrations 
q/* politeness  whatever  which 
he  has  not  shown  him  or 
her. 

A  part  of  the  trees  which  I 
have  remaining  are  loaded 
with  fruit. 

A  choir  of  Nymphs  croiimed 
with  flowers  were  seated 
near  her. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  peo- 
ple neglect  their  own  inter- 
ests. 

The  greatest  part  of  women 
have  more  wit  than  learning. 


Y"ou  will  see  by  the  above  examples  that  the  law  of  con- 
cordance  is  not  observed  with  regard  to  ihe  Noun  of  quan- 
tity, the  subject  of  the  phrase,  but  with  regard  to  the  Noun 
vf\{\c\\  follows  it.  The  grammatical  concordance  is  there- 
by violated  ;  but  logic  requires  it  should  be  so  ;  and,  if 
correspondence  appears  to  be  infringed  in  respect  to  these 
words,  in  the  above  phrases,  it  is  not  so  in  respect  to  the 
ideas  where  it  is  faithfully  observed. 

In  fact,  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  corresponding  words 
are  not  suited  to  the  quantity^  but  to  the  objects  presented 
under  that  quantity.  Let  us  take,  for  example,  the  first  sen- 
tence; *-'' Une  dotizaine  d"*  enfansfurent  tues  le  meme  jour,"*"* 
It  is  not  a  do%en  that  we  wish  to  represent  as  killed,  but 
children^  tv/elve  in  number.  It  is,  therefore,  with  children^ 
that  the  Verb  and  Participle  must  agree  ;  because,  that 
Noun,  presenting  the  principal  idea  of  the  subject  of  the 
phrase,  must  receive  the  attributions — a  dozen  is  but  a  sub- 
ordinate idea,  •and  a  mere  complement^  though,  by  consi- 
dering only  the  grammatical  form  of  the  phrase,  it  is  the 
principal  word. 

Observe,  however,  that  there  are  circumstances  when 
correspondents  may  assume  the  inflections  of  some  of 
those  Nouns  of  quantity;  instances  thereof  are  pretty  of- 
ten met  with  in  the  poets,  who  may  claim  more  indulgence 
in  that  respect. — The  attentive  reading  of  good  authors, 
hov/ever,  will  make  you  sensible  which  of  the  two  con- 
structions ought  to  be  preferred  in  certain  cases. 

VOL.    II.  N  n 


2^4 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


REMARK  III. 

The  words  of  quantity,  beaucoiipt peu^  assez,  moi7is^  plus^ 
trop,  tant^  combien^  &  que  in  the  sense  oi  co7nbien^  exercise 
no  influence  on  the  Verb  and  the  Adjective  which  may 
follow  the  subject,  the  totality  of  which  they  help  to  form  ; 
for  the  Verb  and  Adjective  receive  the  law,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding rule,  from  the  Noun  that  follows  those  words  of 
quantity^ 

EXAMPLES. 


pe  r Sonne  s  vous 


BeaucQup  de 

aiment. 
Peu  de  vin  siiffit  a  1'  homme. 


Feu  de  soldats  courageux  suffi- 
sent  pour  remporter  une 
victoire. 

Assez  d'ambitieux  recherchait 
les  places. 

Moins  de  gens  que  vous  ne  pen- 
sezj  vous  ajijirouvent. 

Plus  de  sagesse  vous  eut  pre- 
serve de  tomber  dans  de 
grandes  fautes. 

Plus  de  fous  que  de  sages  am- 
bitionnent  les  grands  em- 
plois;  ^ro/i  d'ignorans  les  ob- 
tiennent, 

Tant  de  soldats  defendent  nos 
foyers,  que  les  efibrts  de  nos 
ennemis  seront  nuls. 

Combien  de  heros  combattirent 
aux  Thermopyles  ?  Autant 
que  de  soldats. 

Que  de  gens  sans  moeurs  oc- 
cupent  des  places  ou  la  vertu 
est  plus  necessaire  que  les 
taleiis  ! 


A  great  many  people  love  you. 

A   little  wine  is   sufficient  for 

man. 
A  few  courageous  soldiers  are 

sufficient  to  obtain  a  victory. 

Enough  of  the  ambitious  seek 
after  places. 

Less  people  than  you  think  aji- 
prove  of  you. 

More  wisdom  would  have  pre- 
served you  from  falling  into 
great  faults. 

More  fools  than  wise  men  are 
desirous  of  great  employ- 
ments (or  offices)  ;  too  many 
ignorant  obtain  them. 

So  many  soldiers  defend  our 
firesides,  as  will  render  the 
efforts  of  our  enemies  abor- 
tive. 

Hoiv  many  heroes  fought  at 
Thermopyle  ?  As  many  as 
soldiers. 

Hoio  many  people  without  mo- 
rals occupy  posts  where  vir- 
tue is  more  necessary  than 
talents  ! 


REMARK  IV. 


Nouns  collective^  that  is  to  say,  representing  several 
persons  or  things  under  a  Noun  singular^  such  as  rjuilti- 
tude^armee^foret^  Uc.  require  that  their  correspondents 
should  be  in  the  singular* 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


srt 


EXAMPLES. 


La  multitude  des  etrangers  rend 
les  denrees  8c  le  pain  ex- 
tremcment  cher. 

L'  ai^nee  des  Puissances  com- 
binees  a  ete  taillee  en  pieces. 

La  trouble  des   comediens  est 

arrivee. 
La  foret  des  Ardennes  est  au 

couchant  du  Luxembourg. 
La  Jiotte  des  Allies  a  mis  a  la 

voile  pendant  la  nuit. 
Le  Senat  des  Etats-Unis  a  ra- 

tifie   le  traite  pour  la  Loui- 

siane. 
La    Convention- J^ationale   etait 

presque    toute   composee  de 

brigands  8c  de  scelerats. 


The    multitude   of    strangers 

makes  provisions  and  bread 

excessively  dear. 
The    army   of  the  combined 

powers    has   been    cut     to 

pieces. 
The  company  of  players  have 

come. 
The  forest  of  Ardennes  is  to 

the  west  of  Luxemburg. 
Th^Jieet  of  the  Allies  set  sail 

during  the  night. 
The    Senate    of    the    United 

States    have    ratified     the 

treaty  of  Louisiana. 
The  National    Convention  was 

almost  entirely  comfiosed  of 

banditti  and  villains. 


Scholar. 
Why  do  not  the  correspondents  of  the  collective  Noun, 
when  it  is  followed  by  a  Noun  in  the  plural^  agree  with 
this  last,  as  in  the  examples  you  stated  before  ? 

Master. 
Because  those  words  of  quantity  and  the  plural  follow- 
ing them,  which  you  refer  to,  are  but  an  expression,  while 
the  Noun  collective  presents  an  idea  independent  of  what 
may  follow. — An  example  will  make  you  sensible  of  this  : 
I  uppose  that,  instead  of  writing  "L'armeedes  Puis- 
sances combinees  a  ete  taillee  en  pieces,''  one  would  write, 
"  L'  armee  des  Puissances  combinees  ont  ete  taillees  en 
pieces ;"  wouldnotyoualmostexclaimthen,thatpeacemust 
inevitably  be  the  consequence,  because  you  infer,  though 
the  sentence  of  the  writer  be  defectiye,  that  it  is  the  Puis^ 
sances  combinees  that  have  been  cut  to  pieces,  as  taillees^ 
by  assuming  the  gender  and  number  of  Puissances^  relates 
to  them.  But,  upon  reflecting  on  the  construction  of  the 
sentence,  you  will  perceive  that  it  is  the  arjny  only,  and. 
not  the  powers  themselves,  that  have  been  cut  to  pieces  ; 
while  you  would  discover  that  the  defect  of  the  above  sen- 
tence lies  in  the  Verb  and  the  Adjective  (the  correspon- 
dents oiarmee^  which  are  plural,  when  they  should  be  sin' 
gular^  and  you  would,  therefore,  correct  them. 


2r6  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


REMARK  V. 


The  Noun  gens  exercises  a  very  strange  influence  on 
the  Adjective^  as  it  is  always  put  in  the  feminine^  when 
the  Kd^tctive  precedes  it. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ce   sont  de  fort   dangercuses 

gens. 
Toutes  les  vieilles  gens,  toutes 

les  sottes  gens  Sc  toutes  les 

mechantes  gens  V  ont  d6sap- 

prouve. 


They  are  very  dangerous  peo- 
ple. 

ML  the  old  people,  all  Xh^  fool- 
ish people,  and allxho.  toicked 
people  have  disapproved  of 
it. 


EXCEPTIONS. 


We  say  tons  les  gens  and  not  toutes  les   gens,  all   peo- 
ple ;  Example  j 


lous  les  gens  d'  honneur  &  de 
probite  V  estiment. 


Ml  people  of  honor  and  pro- 
bity esteem  him. 


We  also  say,  contrary  to  the  rule, 

Tous  les  honnStes  gens  8c  tous  I  Ml  honest  people   and  all  skil- 
les  habiles  gens  1'  honorent.  |     ful  people  honour  him. 

Because  the  Adjectives  honnete  and  habile  have  the 
same  termination  for  both  genders  ;  but,  should  the  Ad- 
jective/o/Zowthe  word  gens^  the  rule  is  very  precise,  as  it 
is  invariably  of  the  masculine  gender. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ce  sont   des  gens  fort  dange- 

reux. 
Ce  sont  des  ^tns  fiolis  8c  /iru- 

dens, 
II  ne  faut  pas  vous   fier  a  des 

gens  indiscrets. 


They  are  very  dangerous  peo- 
ple. 

They  are  polite  and  prudent 
people. 

You  must  not  trust  indiscreet 
people. 


REMARK  VI. 


^lelque  chose  always   requires   that  its  correspondents 
should  be  in  the  masculine  singular. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


277 


11  a  toujours  guelque  chose  de 
merveillaix  a  raconter. 

On  ni'  a  dit  quelque  chose  qui 
est  trcs-filaisant. 

Je  sais  quelque  chose  qui  n'  est 
pas  fait  pour  vous  rejouir. 


EXAMPLES. 

He  has  always  something  won- 

derful  to  relate. 
I  have  been  told  something  very 

comical, 
I  know  something  which  is  not 

ca/cw/arc Jto  make  you  merry. 


REMARK  VII. 
On  and  ^ikonque  commonly  require  their  correspon- 
dents to  be  in  the  masculine  gender. 

EXAMPLES. 


On  est  venu  vous  demander. 
On  n'  est  ni  vertueux  ni  me- 

chant  a  demi. 
QuiconqueidXiXt^  mal  en  tst /iuni 

tot  ou  tard. 
Quiconque  parlera  Anglaii  sera 

Tnis  a  1* amende. 


Somebody  is  come  to  ask  foryou. 
One    is   neither   virtuous    nor 

nvickecl  by  halves. 
Whoever  does  hdsiw'is  fiunished 

for  it  sooner  or  later. 
Whosoever     speaks     English 

shaU  ht  fined. 


But,  should  the  above  words  pointedly  refer  to  women, 
the  feminine  must  always  be  used. 


EXAMPLES 

On  doit  toujours  etre  soumise 
a  son  mari. 


Quand  on  est  belle,'  on  ne  1'  ig- 
nore pas. 

Quand  on  est  jolie,  on  n'  est 
pas  la  demiere  a  le  savoir. 

Quiconque  est  enceinte  doit  etre 
attentive  a  sa  sante. 

Quiconque  de  vous,  Mesde- 
moiselles,  seraassez  zm/i7'z/- 
dente  pour  le  faire,  sera 
punie. 


One  (or  a  woman)  should  al- 
ways be  obedient  to  her  hus- 
band. 

When  one  (or  a  woman)  is 
handsome,  one  (or  she)  is  not 
ignorant  of  it. 

When  a  wonmn  is  pretty,  she 
is  not  fAe  /a*;  to  know  it. 

Whoever  is  pregnant  must  be 
attentive  to  her  health. 

Whichsoever  of  you,  young  la- 
dies, will  be  imprudent 
enough  to  do  it,  shall  be 
punished. 


Scholar. 
Have  you  no  further  observations  to  make  on  on  ? 

Master. 
Several  more: 1st,  When  on  is  repeated  in  a  sen- 
tence, it  must  refer  to  the  same  Noun. 


278 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


EXAMPLES. 


On  veut  ^tre  instruit  Sc  V  on  ne 
veut  prendre  aucune  peine 
pour  r  etre. 

On  croit  soiivent  etre  aime  & 
P  071  est  ha  1. 


Peq/2/ewish  to  be  enlightened, 
and  yet  will  take  no  trou- 
ble for  it. 

Peofile  often  believe  themselves 
to  be  beloved,  while  they  are 
hated. 


2d,  We  use  /'  on  instead  of  on^  in  order  to  avoid  a  dis- 
agreeable clashing  of  Vowels,  or  the  tedious  repetition 
of  the  same  sound  ;  therefore,  /*  on  ought  to  be  prefer- 
cd.  after  the  following  words,  et^  si,  ou^  &  que,  especially 
when  on  precedes  a  word  beginning  with  com^.^con..., 
EXAMPLES. 


Quand  on  pardonne  on  en  est 
plus  grand,  8c  /'  on  s'  abaisse 
en  se  vengeant. 

Si  /'  on  veut  voir  la  fin  d'  un 
proces,  il  faut  sou  vent  le  com- 
mencer  dans  sa  jeunesse. 

C  est  par  la  vertu  qu'  on  lutte 
avec  tranquillite  centre  les 
passions  des  hommcs,  Sc  que 
/'  on  coxmcdi  le  contentement 
au  milieu  deleurs  injustices. 
C  est  par  elle  qu'  on  voit 
venir  la  defaite  sans  abatte- 
nient,  &  que  /'  on  conserve 
encore  du  courage  aprts  la 
disgrace. 

Dites  moi  si  /'  on  danse  ou  /' 
on  dine  ? 


When  one  forgives,  he  be- 
comes the  greater  for  it,  and 
one  degrades  himself  by 
revenge. 

If  one  wishes  to  see  the  end  of 
a  law-suit,  it  is  often  neces- 
sary that  it  should  be  begun 
in  one's  youth. 

It  is  by  the  help  of  virtue  one 
struggles,  with  tranquillity, 
against  the  passions  of  men, 
and  enjoys  self-content 
amidst  their  injustice.  It  is 
through  her  one  sees  defeat 
come  without  being  dis- 
courag'd,  and  one  keeps  still 
good  heart  after  an  over- 
throw. 

Tell  me  if  they  dance  where 
they  dine  ? 


Observe,  that,  if  on  be  followed  by  an  /  in  the  next 
word,  the  /  should  be  omitted  before  it ;  therefore,  do 
not  say,  "  &  /'  on  1'  entendit....si  /'  on  le  voit....ou  /'  on  le 
cherche,  &c."  but  &  on  V  entendit....si  on  le  voit....ou  on 
Ic  cherche  &c. 

Scholar. 

Are  there  not  some  difficulties  in  the  French  language 
concerning  the  use  of  the  word  Personne  P 
Master. 

Yes  ;  I  w^ill  explain  them  to  you  :  when  this  word  is  pre- 
ceded by  an  Article,   it  implies  an  individual  of  the  hu- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


270 


man  species,  and  requires  that   the   Adjective  correspon- 
dent  be  always  feminine. 

EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  rencontre  la  personne  que 

vous  avez  trouvee  si  ennu- 

yeiise, 
Mille  or  aucune  personne  n'  est 

assez  sottc  pour  le  croire. 
II  n'  y  avait  pas  une  personne 

qui  n'  en  fut  fachee. 


I  met  with  the  person  you 
found  so  tedioiLs. 

M)  one  is  foolish  enough  to  be- 
lieve it. 

There  was  not  one  person  but 
was  sorry  for  it. 


If  Personne  be  alone^  and  not  preceded  by  an  Article,  it 
requires  that  its  correspondent  should  be  masculine^  and 
is  then  used  to  express  any  human  being  whatever. 


EXAMPLES. 


Personne  n'  est  assez  sot  pour 

le  croire. 
II  n'  y  avait  personne  qui  n'  en 

fut  trts-fdche. 


No  body  is  foolish  enough  to 

believe  it. 
There  was  no  body  who  was 

not  very  sorry  for  it. 


Hence  it  is,  that  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  Article 
before  it,  makes  all  the  difference  in  its  use.  It  is 
necessary  to  observe  here,  with  the  French  Academy,  that 
such  modes  of  expression  as  une  jolie — une  charmante — 
une  belle  he.  personne  are  never  used  but  for  women. 
Scholar. 

You  have  asserted  in  mentioning  the  rule  of  concord- 
ance, that  the  Noun  always  regulated  its  correspondents. 
As  you  point  out  no  exception  to  that  rule,  I  must  take  it 
for  granted  that  there  are  none  :  however,  I  have  heard 
of  one,  and  this  is  a  very  remarkable  one. 
Master. 

You  will  oblige  me  to  mention  it  ;  for,  I  confess,  it  has 
entirely  escaped  my  notice  ;  though  I  cannot  help  ex- 
pressing some  surprise  at  it,  as  the  Noun  is  the  supreme 
power  to  which  every  other  part  of  speech  pays  homage, 
it  appears  to  me  inconsistent  that  it  should  receive  the  law 
from  its  subordinates. 

Scholar. 

My  authorities  are  Professors  of  Languages  and  Au- 
thors of  Grammars  themselves. 

One  of  them  says  that  he  is  "  Professeiir  des  Langues 
Espagnole  ^  Franchise," — The  other   says  '•''  ShC  il  en- 


2S0  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

setgne  par  principes  les  iangues  Anglaise,  Allemande  i^ 
Suedoise.'*''  I  see  in  the  above  examples,  that  two  Ad- 
jectives, in  the  singular^  require  the  corresponding  Noun 
to  be  plural;  is  not  that  receiving  law  instead  of  imposing 
it  t  What  say  you  now  ? 

Master. 

I  say,  that  the  two  sentences  you  mention  are  incorrect ; 
and,  that  the  master  v/ho  teaches  so  well  par  principes^ 
teaches  par  de  faux  principes^  and  when  he  teaches,  he  had 
better  leave  his  principles  alone.  The  first  should  have 
said,  he  was  Professeur  delanguQ Espagnole  ^ Frangaise — 
and  the  second,  qic*  it  emeignait  la  langue  Anglaise^  V  Alk' 
mande  ^  la  Suedoise.  Our  rule  will  stand  for  ever,  with- 
out any  exception,  as  it  is  founded  on  common  sense,  and 
a  sense  of  due  subordination  between  the  parts  of  speech. 
Those  Professors  had  no  idea  that  such  modes  of  expres- 
sion are  elliptical^  and  that  the  words  de  langue^  placed  in 
the  first  phrase  before  the  feminine  Adjective  Espagnoie^ 
are  understood  before  that  of  FraiK^aise^  and  so  on,  if  there 
were  any  number  more  of  such  Adjectives  ;  and  in  the 
second  phrase,  the  word  langue  is  also  understood  before 
each  of  the  feminine  Adjectives  Alle?nande  and  Suedoise, 

I  cannot  conclude  the  Syntax  of  the  Noun,  without  de- 
scanting upon  particulars  attending  the  gender  of  some 
Substantives ;  but,  as  these  are  not  so  important  as  the 
other  points,  you  are  yet  unacquainted  with,  you  will  de- 
fer attending  to  them,  till  you  have  run  over  the  whole 
of  this  Syntax. 


A  TABLE  OF  NOUNS, 

WHOSE  GEJVDER    VARIES  ACCORDIJ\rG   TO  THEIR 

JVUMBER,  ACCEPTATION,  Isfc. 

The  Nouns  amour,  delice,  orgue,  are  masculine  in  the 
singular,  and  feminine  in  the  plural, 

EXAMPLES. 

AMOUR,    S.    >!. 


II  est  epris  d,'  un  amour  vio- 
lent. 


He  is  intoxicated  with  violent 
love. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


381 


AMOUES,    PL.    F. 


r  There   are   no  ugly  loves^  or 
II  n'  y  a  point  de  hides  amour8.<      there  is  nothing  ugly,  or  no 

(^     ugliness  in  love. 

But  observe  that  amour  is  masculine,  in  the  plural,  when 
it  means  graces  personified,  or  those  small  figures  which 
serve  as  emblems  in  painting  and  sculpture. 

EXAMPLES. 

AMOURS,    PL.   M. 


Little  loves  are  cruel  tyrants. 

He  caused  several  pretty  little 
loves  to  be  carved  round  his  bed 


Les  fietits  amours  sont  de  cru- 

els  tyrans. 
II  a  fait  sculpter  de  jolis  petits 

amours  autour  de  son  lit. 

DELICE,  SIN.  M. 

La   promenade   est  un   delice  I  Walking  is  a  delight,  or  a  luX' 
pour  moi.  j       ury  to  me. 

DELICES,    PL.  F. 

L'  6tude  fait  toutes  mes  delices,  |  Study  is  my  sole  delights 

ORGUE.    SIN.  M. 

Voila  un  bel  orgue.  |  That  is  a  fine  organ, 

ORGUES.    PL.  F. 

Ce  sont  de  fort  belles  orgues,     \  They  are  very  fine  organs. 

Aide  is  feminine  when  it  signifies  succour,  assistanccy 
or  the  person  who  gives  it ;  But,  it  is  masculine,  in  the 
sense  of  being  under  the  command,  direction,  &c,  of  a  su- 
perior. 

EXAMPLES. 


Donne z-lui  une  aide  prompt e, 
Vous  etes  toute  mon  aide. 


Give  him  speedy  help. 

You  are  all  my  help,  or  support. 


Le  General  Washington  lui 
envoy  a  son  aide  de  camp. 

Avez-vous  besoin  d'  un  aide 
de  cuisine  ? 

Non,  il  me  faut  un  aide  a  ma- 
9on. 


General  Washington  sent  him 

his  oz'c^-de-camp. 
Do  you  want  an  under-cook  ? 

No,  I  must  have  a  mason's  asr^ 
sistarit. 


Aigle  is  feminine,  in  aigle  ImpSriale  Imperial  eagie  ;— 
aiide  Romaine,  Roman  eagle  ; — aigle,  a  constellation : 
under  many  other  circumstances  it  is  masculine* 

VOL.  II.  o  o 


2»3  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

EXAMPLES. 


AIGLE, 


II  est  chevalier  de  1'  aigle  blanc, 

8c  de  r  aigle  noir. 
Li*  aigle  courageux  n'  engendre 

point  la  timide  colombe. 


He  is  a  knight  of  the  ivhite  ea- 
gle^  and  of  the  black  eagle. 

The  courageous  eagle  does  not 
beget  the  timid  dove. 


Couple^  when  signifying  number,  is  feminine. 
EXAMPLE. 


Envoyez-moi  une  coufile  d' 
ceiifs — une  couple  de  poulets, 
&  une  couple  de  dindons. 


COUPLE,    F. 

Send  me  a  couple  of  eggs — a 
couple  of  chickens,  and  a 
couple  of  turkeys. 


But,  vy^hen  it  is  said  of  two  persons  united  by  the  ties 
of  love-,  or  hymen^  it  becomes  masculine, 

EXAMPLE. 


COUPLE,    M. 


Voila  un  couple  bien  uni,  bien 

assorti. 
Couple  heureux,   pu'issent  vos 

jours  etre  longs ! 


There    is    a    couple    happily 

united^  well  matched, 
Happy  couple,  may  your  days 

be  long ! 


Note... .Observe,  you  are  never  to  use  the  above  ex- 
pression to  designate  two  things  made  to  go  together  j  in 
this  case  the  word  pairs  must  be  used. 

EXAMPLE. 

PAIRE,    F. 

Pretez-moi  une.  paire  de  cis-  Lend  me  a  pair  of  scissars — 

eaux — une  paire  de  bas  de  a  pair  of  silk  stockings,  and 

soie  Sc  une  paire  de  gants  a  pair  of  leather  gloves, 
de  peau. 

Echo  is  masculine  when  it  signifies  the  repetition  of  sound. 

EXAMPLE. 

ECHO,    M. 

L'   echo    repond    seul    a    ma  I  The  echo  alone  answers  to  my 
voix.  I       voice. 

It  is  feminine  when  it  designates  the  Nymph  of  that 
name. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  283 

EXAMPLE. 

ECHO,    F. 

^        Echo  etait  amour euse  de  Nar-  I  Echo  was  in  love  with  Narcis- 
1  H        cisse.  I       sus. 

Enseigne  is  masculine  only  when  it  signifies  a  standard- 
bearer  in  a  regiment. 

EXAMPLE. 

ENSEIGNE,    M. 

Cet  enseigne  a  merite  d'  etre  [  This  ensign  has  deserved  to  be 
fait  capitaine.  j.      made  a  captain. 

Exemple  is  feminine  only  when  it  signifies  a  ci?/>j/  of 
•writing, 

EXAMPLE. 

EXEMPLE,    F. 

Les  exemples  de  ce  maitre  d*  I  The  co/2?>s  of  this  writing-mas- 
ecriture  sont  bien  faites.        |      ter  are  well  ivritten. 

Garde  is  masculine  when  said  of  a  keeper  of  any  thing. 

EXAMPLES. 

GARDE,     M. 


On  avait  place  en  sentinelle  un 
garde  du  corps,  un  garde  du 
roi,  un  garde  Frangaise  &  un 
garde  Suisse. 

Le  ^arrfe-njagasin  s'  est  evad6. 


They  had  placed  at  centry  a 
king's  Hfe  guards  a  king's 
guard,  a  French  guards  and 
a  Swiss  guard* 

The  keefier  of  the  magazine  has 
made  his  escape. 


It  \s  feminine  in  every  other  acceptation. 
Guide  is  masculine  when  it  means  a  conductor, 
EXAMPLE. 

GUIDE,    M, 

Fiez-vous  a  lui,  c'  est  un  bon  I  Trust  him,  he  is  a  good  guide, 
guide.  I 

BvLtfeminine  when  it  means  a  rein* 

EXAMPLE. 

GUIDE,    F. 

La  guide  du  cote  droit  de  cette  I  The  rein  on  the  right  side  of 
bride  s'  est  romjiue.  this  bridle  has  been  broken. 


M4.  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

However,  in  this  last  sense,  it  is  more  frequently  used 
in  the  plural, 

EXAMPLE. 

GUIDES,    F. 

Les  guides  lui  echapperent  de 
la  main,  elles  etaient  trop 
courtes. 


The  reins  slipt  from  his  hand, 
they  were  loo  short. 


Ilymne  \^  feminine  when  we  speak  of  the  hymns  sung 
in  church. 

EXAMPLE. 

HYMNE,  F. 

Santeuil  a  fait  les  plus  belles  I  Santeuil  has  written  the  most 
hymnes  Latines.  \       beautiful  Latin  hymns. 

In  otjier  circumstances  it  is  masculine^ 

EXAMPLE. 


HYMNE,    M. 


Je  chante)  TOlympe  m'ecoute ; 
&  mon  hymne  immor  t  el  st'^oute 
un  plaisir  aux  plaisirs  des 
Dieux. 


I  sing,  Heaven  listens  to  me ; 
and  my  immortal  hymn  adds 
pleasure  to  th&  pleasures  of 
the  Gods. 


Manciuvre  is  masculine  when  speaking  of  a  man. 
EXAMPLE. 

MANOEUVAE,    M. 

C  est  wn  manoeuvre  laborieux.  |  He  is  a  laborious  workman. 
But  feminine  in  its  other  acceptations. 

Remark,  with  the  French  Academy,  that  the  w^ord  ma- 
nceuvre,  a  workman,  is  used  only  in  speaking  of  un  aide 
a  ma(^on^  an  help  or  assistant  mason  ;  un  aide  a  couvreury 
an  help  or  assistant  tiler.  The  word  manouvrier  is  used 
to  designate  those  who  work  with  their  hands  and  by  the 
day. 

Oeiivre  is  masculine^  in  the  singular.,  only  when  it  means 
the  philosophical  stone^  and  then  the  epithet  grand  is  al- 
ways prefixed  to  it. 

EXAMPLE. 

OEUVRE,    M. 

C'estunadepted'w^ra«cffl??/i;r^,  |  He  is  an  adept  in  Alchymy* 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  285 

It  is  also  masculine  when  applied  to  the  works  of  a  mw- 
sician. 

Je  voudrais  avoir  le  troisihne  1  I  wish  I  had  the  third  ivork  of 
ceuvre  de  ce  musicien.  |       this  musician. 

In  its  other  applications  it  is  feminine,  both  in  the  sin* 
gular  and  plural, 

EXAMPLES. 


OEUVRE,    F. 


L*  ceuvre  de  la  creation  fut 
achevee  en  six  jours. 

C  est  une  bonne  ceuvre  que  vous 
ferez. 


The  ^vork  of  the  creation  was 

done  in  six  days. 
You  will  do  a  good  action. 


Office^  when  applied  to  the  part  of  a  house  appropriated 
to  preparing  of  desserts  and  containing  linen  and  plates, 
is  2i\wsiys  feminine, 

EXAMPLE. 

OFFICE,  F. 

Cette  office  est  placee  commo-  I  This  buttery  is  conveniently  «'- 
dement.  |       tuated. 

In  all  its  other  acceptations  it  is  masculine' 

Parallele  is  feminine  when  applied  to  signify  a  straight 
Une  parallel  to  another. 

EXAMPLE. 

PARALLELE,  F. 

Ces  deux  fiarallcles  sent  egales  I  These  two  parallels  are  equal 
en  longueur.  |       in  length. 

But  masculine  when  it  is  intended  to  express  a  circle  paral* 
lei  to  the  Equator,  or  (figuratively)  a  comparison  between 
two  objects. 

EXAMPLES. 

PARALLELE,  M. 


Ceux  qui  sont  sous  le  m^me  pa- 
rallele ont  la  meme  latitude. 

Montesquieu  a  fait  le  parallele 
de  Caton  avec  Ciqeron. 


Those  that  are  under  the  same 
parallel  have  the  same  lati- 
tude. 

Montesquieu  has  drawn  a  pa- 
rallel  between  Cato  and  Ci- 
cero. 


S8fi  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

Pendule  is  masculine  when  used  hi  relation  to  a  dock. 
EXAMPLE. 

PENDULE,  M, 

Les  vibrations  de  ce  iiendule  I  The  motions  of  this  fiendulum 
sont  tres-rapides.  j      are  very  rapid. 

When  it  signifies  a  clock  it  is  then  feminine* 

EXAMPLE. 

PENDULE,  F. 

Combien  voulez-vous  de  cette  [  How  much  do  you  ask  for  this 
fiendideZ  |       clock? 

Periode  is  feminine  when  alluding  to  grammatical  lan- 
guage. 

EXAMPLE. 

PERIODE,  F. 

C  est  une  fieriode  nombreuse  &  I  It  is  an  extensive  fieriod  ex^ 
confine  en  termes  bien  ar-  j  pressed  in  terms  well  ar- 
ranges. I      ranged. 

It  is  also  feminine  when  it  signifies  the  revolution  of  a 
celestial  body,  or  the  crisis  of  a  fever. 

EXAMPLES, 

PERIODE,  F. 


La  lune  fait  sa  fiSHode  en  vingt- 
neuf  jours  ,&  demi. 

La  fievre  quarte  a  ses  fieriodes 
reglees. 


The  moon  completes  her  pe- 
riodical revolution  in  twenty- 
nine  days  and  a  half. 

The  quartan  ague  has  its  re- 
gular periods. 


But  it  is  masculine  when  it  signifies  the  highest  degree 
of  any  thing,  or  the  hightst  point  one  may  reach. 

EXAMPLES 


PERIODE,  M. 


Demostliene  Sc  Ciceron  ont 
porte  r  eloquence  a  son  plus 
haut  periode. 


de  sa  vie. 


Demosthent^s  and  Cicero  have 
carried     eloquence    to     its 

highest  pitch. 


II  est  dans  le  dernier  periode  ■  He  is  at  the  last  period  of  his 


life. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  28f 

Pdque^  without  an  *,  signifies  the  Passover  of  the  Jews, 
and  is  feminine, 

EXAMPLE. 

PAQUE,  F. 

Notre   Seigneur  a  celebre  la  I  Our  Lord  celebrated  the  fiast- 
pdque  avec  ses  disciples.       j       over  with  his  disciples. 

But,  when  signifying  the  Easter  of  the  Christians,  and 
spelt  with  an  5,  it  is  masculine^  and  admits  of  no  Article. 

EXAMPLE. 

PA<iUES,   M. 


Quand  fidques  sera  venu^  je 
regie rai  mon  compte  avec 
vous. 


When  Easter    comes,    I  will 
settle  my  account  with  you. 


When  Pdques  is  used  in  the  plural,  it  takes  on  the  fe' 
minine. 

EXAMPLE. 


PAQ,UES,  F. 


Cette  vieille,   devote    ne    fait 
point  de  bonnes  fidques. 


This  old  devotee  does  not  per- 
form her  Easter  duty  con- 
scientiously. 

There  are  Nouns  that,  under  the  same  acceptation, 
adopt  either  gender,  according  to  the  choice  of  him  who 
speaks  ;  such  are,  automne  and  Duche-pairie. 

EXAMPLES. 

AUTOMNE,   M.  &  F. 

f/nde/automne,  (masc.  after  the  Adjective.  >  ^^«<r   >   . 
Une  automne  filuvieuse,  (fem.  before  the  3  ^  rainy  3  -^^^^^,"' 
Adjective). 

DUCHE-PAIRIE,  M.  &  F. 

Z7«,  ou  une  duche-pairie,  (the  masculine  5  ^  d  1    d 
is  more  generally  used).  \ 

Foudre^  in  its  primary  acceptation,  without  epithet,  is 
feminine^  in  the  singular. 

EXAMPLE. 

FOUDRE,   F. 

II  a  ete  frappe  de  la  foudre,      \  He  was  struck  by  thunder. 

But,  if  you  add  an  epithet  to  it,  or  if  it  be  plural^  it  is 
indifferently  of  either  gender. 


288  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

EXAMPLES. 

FOUDRE,    M.    8c    r. 

Lefoudre  vengeur,  ou  ">      j^^  ^         .^^     ^Avenging  thunder  has 
Lafoudre  vengeresscS  ^        '     C     punished  them. 

FOUDRES,    M.    &    F. 

Les  foudres  imfiuissans  s'  eteigneiit  dans  les  airs. 
Je  pourrais  t'  ecraser  8c  \t^  foudres  sont  fireies. 

Foudre  is  masculine  in  the  following ^^wra'/u^  mode  of 
expression. 

EXAMPLES. 

FOUDRE,    M. 


Cet  orateur  est  un  foudre  d' 

eloquence. 
Ce  guerrier  est  U7i  foudre  de 

guerre. 


This  orator  is  a  thunder-bolt  of 

eloquence. 
This  warrior  is  a  thunder-bolt 

of  war. 


It  is  also  masculine  when  used  to  signify  an  amazing 
large  vessel  for  liquids. 


EXAMPLE. 


Le  fameux  foudre  d*  Heidel- 
berg contient,  dit-on,  plus  de 
cent  bariques  de  vin. 


The  famous  tun  of  Heidelberg 
contains,  they  say, above  one 
hundred  hogsheads  of  wine. 


Pleurs^  tears,  is, always  masculine. 
EXAMPLES. 

PLEURS,   M. 

Le  ciel  dans  tons  leurs  fdeurs  ne  m*  entend  point  nommer. 
Voila  les  premiers  fileurs  qui  coulent  de  mes  yeux. 
Cesse  tes  pleurs^  Alzire,  Us  outragent  ton  pere. 

There  are  some  nouns^  which,  under  the  same  inflec- 
tion and  gender,  designate  two  sexes,  such  are,  auteur^ 
docteur,  Scrivain^  garant,  temoin,  medecin^  orateur,  peintre, 
soldat,  po'ete,  &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

This  ivoman  is  author  of  seve- 


C^tte  femme  est  auteur  de  plu- 
sieursbonsouvrages — c'  est 
un  charmant  ecrivain — un 
poece  ele:;ant^ — un  excellent 
peintre — en  un  mot,  c'  est 
un  amateur  eclaire  de  tous 
ks  beaux  arts. 


ral  good  works — she  is  a 
charming  'writer — an  ele- 
gant//od'? — an  excellent/zam- 
ter — in  a  word,  she  is  an  en- 
lightened amateur  of  the  fine 
arts. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


289 


Ilypparchia,  femme  Grecque, 
etait  firofeaseur  de  philoso- 
phic 8c  orateur, 

Cette  dame  est  ausi  bon  me- 
decin  Sc  aussi  grand  dacteur 
que  son  mari. 

La  fameuse  Madame  D'  Eon 
etait  un  brave  soldat, 

Cette  fcmme  est  un  temoin  ir- 
recusable dans  cette  affaire. 


Hypparchia,a  Grecian  woman, 
was  a  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  an  orator* 

This  lady  is  as  good  a  fihysi- 
cian,  and  as  great  a  doctress 
as  her  husband. 

The  famous  Madame  D'  Eon 
was  a  brave  soldier. 

This  woman  is  an  unobjec- 
tionable witness  in  this  bu- 
siness. 


I  will  conclude  by  making  some  remarks  on  the  man- 
lier of  forming  the  plural  of  compound  Nouns. 

1st,  When  a  Noun  is  composed  of  a  Substantive  and  an 
Adjective^  both  take  the  termination  of  the  plural. 


EXAMPLES. 


SINGULAR, 

tJn  arc-boutant, 
un  bout-rime. 


PLURAL. 

Des  arc«-boutan*. 
des  bout«-rime5. 


2d,  When  compound  Nouns  are  formed  with  a  PrepO' 
sit  ion,  or  a  Verb  and  a  Noun,  the  Nouji  alone,  can  be 
made  plural. 


EXAMPLES. 


SINGULAR. 

Un  avant-coureur. 
un  entre-sol. 
un  abat-vent. 
un  garde-fou. 


PLURAL. 

Des  avaftt-coureur*. 
des  entre-sol«. 
des  abat-vent«. 
des  garde-fou*. 


3d,  When  a  word  is  formed  by  uniting  two  Nouns  by 
means  of  a  Preposition,  the  first  of  the  two  Nouns  alone 
takes  the  inflection  of  the  plural. 

EXAMPLES. 


SINGULAR. 

Un  arc-en-ciel. 
un  chef-d'  oeuvre. 
un  cul-de-lampe. 
un  coq-a-l'  ^ne. 


PLURAL. 

Des  arc«-en-ciel. 
des  chef«-d'  cjeuvre. 
des  cul5-de-lampe. 
des  coq«-a-r  ane. 


VOL.  II. 


29o: 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Nouns  borrowed  from  foreign  idioms,  without  being 
^allicised,  are  written  in  the  plural  as  in  the  aingular ; 
thus  we  say  in  French^ 


{alibi, 
alinea. 
ave. 
auto-da-fe. 
errata. 


fopera. 

\  numero. 
Let  csetera. 


The  words  y^c^wOT,  debet ^  and  placet  are  an  exception,  for 
to  these  the  French  Academy  add  an  s  in  the  plural. 

Proper  names  used  in  a  figurative  sense,  admit  of  the 
plural  final. 


EXAMPLES. 


Les  Racines  &  les  Vohaire* 
sent  des  hommes  rares. 

Les  Lockes  &  les  Montes- 
quieus  ont  ete  les  vrais  le- 
gislateurs  du  monde. 


The  Racines  and  the  Voltaire* 
are  rare  men. 

The  Lockes  and  the  Monte s- 
quieus  were  the  true  legis- 
lators of  mankhid. 


Proper  names  of  persons,  serving  only  to  distinguish 
people  by  their  name,  though  applied  to  several,  do  not 
assume  the  plural. 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  deux  Corncille  se  sent  dis- 
tingues  dans  la  republique 
des  lettres. 

Les  trois  Bernard  ont  ete 
ch antes  par  Voltaire. 


The  two  Corneilles  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  the 
republic  of  letters. 

The  three  Bernards  have  been 
sung  by  Voltaire., 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


291 


INSTRUCTION  THE  FOURTH. 


OF  THE  ADJECTIVE  AND  NUMBERS, 


Master. 
The  Adjective,  being  the  most  intimate  correspondent 
of  the  Noun  from  which  it  originated,  must  always,  as  we 
have  already  shown,  agree  with  it  in  gender  and  number. 
— Having  in  the  first  part  of  this  volume  acquainted  you 
with  what  relates  to  the  gender  and  number  of  Adjec- 
tives, I  will  now  proceed  to  trace  out  some  difficulties 
of  the  French  language,  relative  to  the  place  which  the 
Adjectives  ought  to  occupy  either,  before  or  after  the 
Noun,  when  they  are  not  attributes  in  a  sentence. 

RULE  I. 

Several  kinds  of  Adjectives,  in  French,  are  always 
placed  after  their  Noun  :  1st,  Adjectives  formed  of  the 
present  or  past  participles  of  the  Verbs, 

EXAMPLES. 


C   est   un    ouvrage    divertia- 

sant, 
Vous  lui  donnez  la  une  preuve 

convaincantc  d'  amitie. 
Le     medecin    m'    a    dit  que 

c'  etait  un  homme  mqrt, 
Une   belle  pensee   embrouillee 

est  un  diamant  couvert  de 

boue. 


It  is  an  entertaining  work. 

You  give  him  there  a  coniyinc- 

ing  proof  of  friendship. 
The  physician  told  me  he  was 

a  dead  man. 
A  fine  thought  when  confused 

is  a  diamond  covered  with 

mud. 


There  are  only  few  exceptions  where  Adjectives  formed 
of  the  Participles  present  can  be  put  before  the  Noun. 

EXAMPLES. 


Le  plus  decidant  personnage 
n*  est  pas  toujours  le  mieux 
instruit. 

La  campagne  offre  mille  rian- 
tes  images. 


The  most  fiositive  man  is  not 
always  the  best  informed. 

The  country  affords  a  thousand 
delightful  prospects. 


292 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


^dly,  Adjectives  that  denote  figure^  colour^  taste^  sounds 
or  relate  to  the  sense  of  feeling. 

EXAMPLES. 


II  me  faut  une  table  ronde, 
J'  ai  achete  une   tabatiere  car- 

ree, 
Je  prefere  le   vin  blanc  au  vin 

rouge* 
II  porte  des  bas  ^wirs  avec  un 

habit  vert, 
Le  medecin  lui  a  ordomi^  de 

boire  une  decoction  d'herbes 

ameres,  &    de    manger   des 

fruits  aigrese 
Au  dernier  concert,  il  joua  sur 

un  violon  sonore  ;  Sc  elle  en- 

chanta  tout  le  monde  par  sa 

voix  harmonieuse. 
La  nuit  passee,  j'ai  couche  sur 

un  lit  dur, 
A  dine,  on  nous  servit  une  vo- 

laille  iendre  k  des  oeufs  mol- 

lets. 
Nous  passames  par  plusieurs 

chemins  rahoteux. 


I  want  a  round  table. 

I  bought  a  square  snuif-box^ 

I  prefer  ivhite  wine  \.q  red. 

He  wears  black  stockings  with 
a  green  coat. 

The  physician  has  ordered 
him  to  drink  a  decoction  of 
hitter  herbs,  and  to  eat  aour 
fruits. 

At  the  last  concert,  he  played 
on  a  sonorous  violin ;  and 
she  charmed  every  one  by 
her  harmonious  voice. 

Last  night  I  slept  on  a  hard 
bed. 

At  dinner,  they  sei'ved  us  up  a 
tender  fowl  and  soft  eggs. 

We  passed  through  several 
roup-Ji  roads. 


3dly,  Those  relating  to  matter  or  spirit^   or   that  e^;:- 
press  any  kind  of  operation. 


EXAMPLES. 


La  partie  at^ueusc  du  sang  est 

la  plus  considerable. 
Lcs  esprits  aeriens  n'  existent 

que   dans   une  imagination 

super  stitieuse, 
Cette  substance  contient  bien 

des  parlies  salinrs, 
Je  cherche  par  tout  un  domes- 

tique  actij. 
Get  ecrivain  se  sert  toujours 

de  mots  cxpressifs. 


The  aqueous  part  of  the  blood 
is  the  most  considerable. 

Aerial  spirits  exist  only  in  the 
imagination  of  the  su/iersti- 
tious. 

That  substance  contains  many 
saline  parts. 

I  look  every  where  for  an  ac- 
tive servant. 

This  writer  always  uses  ex- 
presdve  words. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


:^3 


4thly,  Those  expressing  a  quality  relative  to  the  na- 
ture or  species  of  a  thing. 


EXAMPLES. 


Cet  avare  n'  a  jamais  eprouve 

de  plaisir  rSel. 
L'    ordre   logique    doit  passer 

avant  1'  ordre  grammatical. 
La  philosophic  a  banni  pour 

toujours  les   qualites    occul- 

tes. 


This  miser  never  experienced 
any  real  pleasure. 

Logical  order  must  go  before 
grammatical  order. 

Philosophy  has  forever  banish- 
ed occult  qualities. 


5thly,  Adjectives  ending  in  esque^  ic,  ique,  zl,  z//,  ier. 


EXAMPLES. 


Scarron  excellait  dans  le  style 

burlesque, 
Tous  ceux  qui    voyagent  en 

Suisse,  en  admirent  les  vues 

pittoresques, 
Le  bien  jiublic  est  preferable 

a  r  miGYtt  particuliej', 
Ce  souverain  a  1'  esprit  /laci- 

Jique, 
On  lui  a  fait  present  d'  un  ca- 

rosse  magnijique, 
Cet  homme  a  la  conversation 

jiuerile  Sc  la  conduite  iiicivile, 

Je  ne  crois  pas  que  cette  fem- 
me  soit  credule. 


Scarron  excelled  in  the  bur- 
lesque  style. 

All  those  who  travel  in  Swit- 
zerland admire  its  romantic 
landscapes. 

Public  good  is  preferable  to 
private  interest. 

This  s:  v'creign  has  a  jiacijic 
mind. 

He  or  she  has  been  presented 
with  a  splendid  coach. 

This  man  has  a  childish  con- 
versation and  impolite  con- 
duct. 

I  do  not  .believe  she  is  a  credif" 
lous  woman. 


6thly,  Adjectives  of  Nations, 


EXAMPLES. 


L'  Iliade  &  V  Eneide  sont  les 

tableaux  du  peuple  Grec  Sc 

du  peuple  Romain, 
Ce  seigneur  Kusse  a  un  cuisi- 

nier  Franc^ais  8c  un  valet  de 

chambre  Italien, 
La  constitution  yy/r^mcfir/we  est 

un  chef-d'  oeuvre  de  sagesse 

humaine. 


The  Iliad  and  ^Eneid  are  pic- 
tures of  the  G?'ee/candRoma?i 
people. 

This  Russian  lord  has  a  French 
cook  and  an  Italian  valet  de 
chambre. 

The  American  constitution  is  a 
master-piece  of  human  wis- 
dom. 


294 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


Note,  that  adjectives  chiefly  relating  to  moral  qualities 
good  or  bad,  are  in  general  indifferently  placed  either 
before  or  after  their  Substantives, 


EXAMPLES. 


She  is  a  charming  woman. 


You  will  find  in  him  2i  faithful 

friend. 
She  reprimanded  him  severely. 


This  young  man  has   detesta- 
ble maxims. 


C  est  une  femme  charmante^  ou 

C  estirnc  charmante  femme. 

Vous  trouverez  en  lui  un  ami 
Jidele^  ou  \mfidele  ami. 

Eile  lui  a  fait  de  severes  repri- 
mandes,  ou  des  reprimandes 
severes, 

Ce  jeune  homme  a  des  max- 
imes  detestablcs^  ou  de  de- 
test ables  maximes. 

Notw^ithstanding  the  above  rules,  harmony,  taste,  and 
poetical  language  countenance  a  deviation  from  them. 
Therefore,  an  attentive  reading  of  good  authors,  or  prac- 
tice in  the  conversation  of  the  well-informed  of  the  French 
nation,  will  be  the  best  guides  for  English  or  American 
pupils. 

RULE  II. 

In  English  txvo  Adjectives  may  qualify  a  NouHy  with- 
out being  united  by  a  conjunction  ;  but  the  conjunction  is 
absolutely  indispensable  in  French. 

EXAMPLES. 


She  is  a  good^  virtuous  woman. 
He  is  a  sober^  charitable  man. 


C  est  une  femme  bonne  8c  ver- 
tueuse. 

C' est  mi  homme  sobr  eh.  charit- 
able, 

I  will  observe,  that,  though  the  English  learner  might 
sometimes  place  both  Adjectives  thus  united  by  the  Con- 
junction before  the  Noun,  yet,  to  prevent  mistakes,  I  ad- 
vise him  to  place  the  two  Adjectives  always  ajter  the 
Noun. 

Remark,  that  if  three  or  more  Adjectives  should  qualify 
one  Noun,  the  Conjunction  is  then  placed  bctxveen  the  two 
last^  and  theAdjectives  must  always  be  put  after  the  Noun. 

EXAMPLES. 


Cc  sont  des  lecons  tongues^  en- 
nuyeuses  Sc  enibarrassantesi 

Un  ami  constant^  sincere  Sc  de- 
sinteresse  est  rare. 


These  are  long^  tedious  and/iei'- 
plcxing  lessons. 

A  constant^  sincere  and  disin- 
terested friend  is  rare. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


295 


Observe,  that  custom  will  sometimes  allow  ^ne  of  tlxe 
Adjectives  to  precede  the  T^oun,  while  the  other ^  or  others, 
should  follow. 

EXAMPLES. 


C    est    une    grande    femme 

blonde. 
C   est  un  fietit  homme,  sec  & 

robuste. 


She  is  a  re//,  fair  woman. 

He  is  a  small^  raw-boned^  robitst 
man. 


RULE  III. 

The  Preposition  by^  when  used,  in  English,  before  a 
word  or  words  expressing  proportion^  by  which  one  sub- 
ject exceeds  another,  is  always  rendered,  in  French,  by 
the  Preposition  de. 


EXAMPLES. 


Je  suis  plus  grand  que  vous  de 

toute  la  tete. 
II  est  plus  age  que  moi  de  six 

ans. 
Cette  allee  est  plus  etroite  que 

r    autre    de   deux   pieds  Sc 

demi. 
C  etait  trop  cher  de  moitie. 


I  am  taller  than    you    by  the 

whole  head. 
He    is    older    tlian    I    by   six 

years. 
This  alley    is   narrower  than 

the  other  by  two  feet  and  a 

half. 
It  was  too  dear  by  half. 


Observe,  that  when,  in  English,  than  precedes   num- 
bers^ it  is  also  rendered,  in  French,  by  de. 


EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  ]^rdu  au  jeu  plus  rfecent 

guinees. 
Elle  n'  a  pas  plus  de    dix-sept 

ans. 
Je  r  ai  vu  plus  c?'  une  fois. 


I  lost,  in  playing,  more  tha7i 
one  hundred  guineas. 

She  is  not  more  than  seven- 
teen. 

I  saw  him  more  then  once. 


396  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

RULE  IV. 

When  than^  in  a  comparative  sense,  precedes  a  Verb^  it 
is  rendered,  in  French,  by  que  ne, 

EXAMPLES. 

He  is  wiser  than  you  think. 


II  est  pKis  sage    que   vous  ne 

pensez. 
Je  suis  plus  fort  que  je  n'  etais 

1'  annee  passee. 
Vous  ecrivez  mieux  que  vous 

ne  fesiez. 


I  am  stronger  tlian  I  was  last 

year. 
You  write  better  than  you  did. 


EXCEPTION  I. 

•   If  the  Verb  following  than  be  in  the  Infiriitive  mood,  que  is  followed  by 
de  instead  of  ne. 

EXAMPLES. 


II  est  plus  noble  de  pardonner 

que  de  se  venger. 
II  est  plus  aise  d'  obeir  que  de 

commander. 


It  is  more  noble  to  forgive  than 
to  revenge  one's  self. 

It  is  easier  to  obey  than  to 
command. 


But,  when  the  French  comparative  Adjective  requires 
the  Preposition  a  before  the  jftrst  Infinitive,  than  is  then 
expressed  by  qu^  a, 

EXAMPLES. 


II  est  plus  dispose  a  vous  nuire 

qu*  a  vous  obliger. 
II  est  plus  sujet  a  medire  qu*  a 

bien  faire. 


He  is  more  inclined  to  hurt 

than  to  oblige  you. 
He  is  more  addicted  to  slander 

than  to  do  well. 


EXCEPTION  II. 

The  word  than  is  rendered  by  que  only  when  a  CoTijicnction,  or  connective 
word,  is  placed  between  thati  and  the  Verb. 


EXAMPLES. 


Vous  vous  retablirez  plutot 
que  si  vous  etiez  a  la  viile. 

Elle  est  plus  belle  que  quand 
je  la  vis. 


You  will  recover  sooner  than 
if  yow  were  in  the  country. 

She  is  handsomer  than  when 
I  saw  her. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


297 


RULE    V. 

When  the  Superlative  does  not  imply  any  comparison 
(although  it  relate  to  a  'N  own  feminine  singular  or  plural) 
/^,  instead  of  la  or  les^  must  invariably  precede  plus, 

EXAMPLES. 

La  lune  ne   nous  eclaire  pas 

autant   que   le    soleil,    lors 

meme  qu*   elle   est   le  plus 

brillante. 
La  lune  n'  est  pas,  a  beaucoup 

pres,  aussi  eloignee    de   la 

terre  que  les  autres  aslres, 

lors  meme  qu'  elle  en  est  le 

plus  eloignee. 
Nous  ne  pleurons  pas  toujours 

quand  nous  sommes  le  plus 

affliges. 


The  moon  does  not  enlighten 
us  as  much  as  the  sun,  even 
when  she  shines  the  bright- 
est. 

The  moon  is  not  by  much  as 
distant  from  the  earth  as  the 
other  celestial  bodies  even 
when  she  is  the  most  distant 
from  it. 

We  do  not  always  shed  tears, 
when  we  are  the  most  af- 
flicted. 


It  is  very  easy  to  see  in  the  above  phrases,  that  no  ob. 
jects  are  designed  to  be  contrasted  or  compared  Xo^tXhtT, 
RULE  VL 

The  Preposition  in  which  sometimes  follows  a  Superla* 
tive,  in  English,  is  always  rendered  by  de,  dii,  or  de  l\  &c, 
EXAMPLES. 


C  est  la  plus  grande  coquette 

de  Philadelphie. 
C  est  le  meilleur  homme  du 

monde. 
La  France  est  le  pays  le  plus 

peuple  de  /'  Europe. 


She  is  the  greatest  coquette  in 

Philadelphia. 
He    is   the   best  map   in  the 

world. 
France  is  the  most  populous 

country  in  Europe. 


RULE  VIL 

When  a  Superlative  is  connected  with  a  Verb  by  means 
of  the  words  qui,  que,  oh,  it  requires  that  Verb  to  be  in 
the  Subjunctive* 

EXAMPLES. 

C  est   la  plus  belle  fille    qui 

ait  jamais  existe. 
C  est  r  homme   le  plus  fort 

que  j*  aie  vu. 
C  est  une  des  affaires  les  plus 

desagreables  ou  jamais   un 

honnete  homme  se  &oit  trou- 

v6  engage. 

VOL.    II. 


She   is   the   handsomest    girl 

that  ever  existed. 
He  is  the  strongest  man  I  ever 

saw. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  disagreea* 

ble  affairs  in  which  an  honest 

man  was  ever  engaged. 


^q 


'^f8 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Master. 
I  have  acquainted  you,  in  the  Conversation  on  the  Ad- 
jective^ of  what  was  meant  by  the  regimen  or  complement 
thereof.  My  object,  now,  is  to  acquaint  you  what  kind 
of  Adjectives  require  the  Preposition  de  before  their 
complementary  word,  and  what  others  require  the  Preposi- 
tion a. 

RULE  VIII. 

French  Adjectives  expressing  plenty^  satisfaction^  de- 
sire^  knowledge^  &c.  as  well  as  Adjectives  having  a  con- 
trary signification ;  and,  in  general,  those  followed,  in 
English,  by  the  Prepositions  offrom^  <^fttr^  withy  by^  Sec. 
require  the  Preposition  de  after  them. 

EXAMPLES. 


II  a  ete  comble  de  politesses. 
Je  suis  prive  de  tout. 
II  est  tres-avide  de  richesses. 
II  est  charge  de  dettes. 
Vous  n'  etes  pas   capable  d' 

expliquer  cet  aiiteur. 
EUe  est  incapable  dc  mensonge. 
Je   suis  content    de  votre  re- 

ponse. 
II  est  mecontent  de  sa  femme. 

Je  suis  ravi  de  son  retabliss- 

ment. 
Je  suis  exempt  de  crainte  Sc  de 

dangero 


He  was  loaded  wzV/z  kindnesses. 

I  am  deprived  (/every  thing. 

He  is  very  greedy  a/?er  wealth. 

He  is  deeply  in  debt. 

You  are  not  able  to  construe 
this  author. 

She  is  incapable  of  a  lie. 

I  am  satisfied  with  your  an- 
swer. 

He  is  discontented  ivith  his 
wife. 

I  am  overjoyed  at  his  recovery. 

I  am  ivGtfroin  fear  and  danger. 


RULE  IX. 

Adjectives  which  denote  aptness^  fitness^  inclination^ 
conformity y  habit^  disposition^  &c.  require  the  Preposition 
a  after  tliem. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  est  propre  a  tout. 
Eile  n'  est  propre  a  rien. 
Cela  est  nuisible  a  la  sante. 
Cela  est  aise  a  dire  Sc  mal-aise 
a  faire. 


He  is  ntfor  anything. 
She  is  unfit/or  any  thing. 
That  is  hurtful  to  health. 
This  is  easy   to   say  and  diffi- 
cult .-"o  do. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


299 


II  est  adonne  a  V  ivrognerie. 
Cela    est-il    conforme    a     la 


verile  i 


est    semblable    au 


Le  votre 

mien. 
Je  suis  sensible  a  vos  bontes. 

II  est  insensible  a  toutes  les 
remontrances  de  ses  amis. 

Ce  negociant  est  tres-exact  a 
ses  engagemens. 

II  est  habile  a  tout  faire. 

II  est  zele  a  remplir  ses  de- 
voirs. 


He  is  addicted  to  drunkenness. 
Is  that  conformable  to  truth  ? 

Yours  is  like  mine. 

I  am  sensible  of  your  kind- 
nesses. 

He  is  insensible  to  all  the  re- 
monstrances of  his  friends. 

This  merchant  is  very  punc- 
tual in  his  engagements. 

He  is  skilful  in  doiag  every- 
thing. 

He  is  zealous  in  discharging 
his  duty. 


Observe,  that  a  fexv  Adjectives  are  often  followed,  in 
French,  by  the  Preposition  envers^  which  is  then  rendered, 
in  English,  by  to. 


EXAMPLES 

II  faut  etre  poli  envers  tout  le 

monde. 
Ce  maitre  est  tres-bon  envers 

ses  esclaves. 
Ce  capituine    de  corsaire   est 

tres-cruel  envera  ses  prison- 

niers. 


One  must  be  polite    to  every 

body. 
This  master  is  very  good  to  his 

slaves. 
This  captain  of  a  privateer  is 

very  cruel  to  his  prisoners. 


RULE  X. 

When  numbers  are  followed  by  a  Noun  and  2i  past  Par- 
ticiplc^  in  English,  the  Preposition  de  must  be  put,  in 
French,  betxvcen  the  Noun  and  Participle^  which  agrees 
with  the  former  in  gender  and  ?iumber» 


EXAMPLES. 


Dans  le  dernier  incendie,  il  y 
eut  vingt-sept  maisons  de 
brulees,  plus  de  cinquante 
personnes  d'  etouffees  par 
les  flammes,  &    un    grand 

.  Tiombre  d'  ensevelics  sous 
les  mines. 

Cette  fregate  a  eu,  dans  le 
combat,  soixante  hommcs  de 
tues  Sc  quatre-vingt  de  bles- 
ses. 


In  the  last  fire,  there  were 
twenty-seven  houses  burnt  ; 
more  than  Jlftij  jieofile  smo- 
thered by  the  flames,  and  a 
great  many  buried  under  the 
rubbish. 

This  frigate  had,  in  the  en- 
gagement, siicty  men  killed 
and  eighty  wounded. 


3bo 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Scholar. 
Att  there  not  some  difficulties  concerning  the  Adjec- 
tives feUj  nuy  and  grand? 

Master. 
Yes  :  1st,  The  Adjectivey^-w  preceded  by  the  Article  la 
is  Jeminine^  but  when  it  precedes  that  Article  it  is  mascu' 
line. 

EXAMPLES. 

Feu  la  reine,  ou  la  Jeue  reine,  I  The  late  queen  was  an  accom- 
etait  une  femme  accomplie.  |      plished  woman. 

Observe,  that  this  Adjective  has  no  plural* 

2d,  The  Adjective  ww,  when  it  precedes  a  Noun^  is 
invariable,  but  when  it  follows  agrees  with  it  in  gender 
and  number » 

EXAMPLES. 


11  lui  parla  nw-tete,  ou  la  tete 

nue. 
11  va  m^-pieds,    ww-jambes,  ou 

il  va  les  picds  nus,  les  jambes 


He  spoke  to  him  or  her,  bare- 

headed. 
He  goes  ^are-footed,  bare-\e^- 

ged. 


3d,  Grande^  feminine,  sometimes  loses  its  e  in  pronun- 
ciation and  in  writing,  before  a  few  Nouns  beginning  with 
a  consonant^  which  is  signified  by  an  Apostrophe  being 
put  over  the  place  where  the  e  should  be. 

EXAMPLES. 


II   est  entr6  dans    la  grand  ' 

salle  du  palais. 
Ce  n'  est  pas  grand  '  chose. 
Cette  nouvelle  lui  fera  grand  ' 

peine. 
II  eut  grand  *   peur    Sc   moi 

aussi. 
V   avals  grand'  ioAva    Sc   lui 

aussi. 
Avez-vous  fait  grand  '  chere  ? 

11  herite  de  sa  grand  '  mere  Sc 

de  sa  grand*  tante. 
La  grand  '  ftiesse  dura  plusde 

quatre  heures. 


He  entered  the  large  hall  of  the 

court. 
'Tis  no  great  matter. 
This  piece  of  news  will  grieve 

him  or  her  very  much. 
He  was  very  much  afraid  and 

I  also. 
I  was  very  hungry  and  he  too. 

Had  you  a  plentiful  entertain- 
ment ? 

He  inherits  from  his  grand 
mother  and  aunt. 

High  mass  lasted  above  foui* 
hours. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


301 


I  conclude  the  Syntax  of  the  Adjectives  by  informing 
you,  that  Adjectives  used  in  the  place  of  Adverbs^  never 
vary. 


EXAMPLES. 


Cet    orateur    demeura  court 

contre  son  usage. 
L'  ainee   de  ces  demoiselles 

chanteyz^re,lacadette  chante 

faux, 
Vous  parlez  trop  vite  &  trop 

bas  pour  moi. 


This  orator  stopped  short  con- 
trary  to   his  custom. 

The  eldest  of  these  young  la- 
dies sings  trucy  and  the 
youngest  sings/a&f . 

You  speak  too  fast  and  too  low 
for  me. 


RULE  XL 


In  speaking  of  Sovereigns  and  Princes^  the  cardinal  nutin- 
bers  are  used,  in  French,  instead  of  the  ordinal^  as  in 
English,  except  in  alluding  to  the  two  Jirst  of  the  Dynas- 
ty^ when  the  ordinal  number  must  be  used. 


EXAMPLES. 


Louis  premier y  fils  de  Charle- 
magne, fut  surnomme  le 
debonnaire. 

Jacques  second  mourut  en 
France,  le  quatorze  Septem- 
bre,  mil  sept  cent  un. 

George  trois  fut  couronne,  le 
vingt-deux  Septembre,  mil 
sept  cent  soixante  &  un. 

Henri  qvutre^  roi  de  France 
mourut  assassine. 

Charles  cing^  roi  de  France, 
fut  surnomme  le  sage. 


Lewis  the  firsts  son  of  Charle- 
magne, was  surnamed  the 
meek. 

James  the  second  died  in  France 
on*  the  Uth  of  September, 
1701. 

George  the  third  was  crowned 
on*  the  22d  of  September 
1761. 

Henry  the  fourth,  king  of 
France,  was  murdered. 

Charles  theffthy\An%  of  France, 
was  surnamed  the  wise. 


Observe,  that,  when  speaking  of  Charles  the  fifth.  Em- 
peror of  Germany y  and  Pope  Sextus  the  fifth,  we  say, 
Charles-yw/72?  &  Sixte-yz/i/z^,  instead  of  Charles  cinq  and 
Sixte  GiJiq. 


*  On  is  never  expressed  in  French. 


302 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


We  also  make  use  of  the  cardhialnumbQY  instead  of  the 
ordmaly  in  speaking  6f  all  the  days  of  the  month,  the  first 
excepted. 

EXAMPLE. 


La  Societe  s'  assemblera  le 
firemier^  le  deux,  le  dix-sept 
&  le  vingt-un  de  juin. 


The  Society  will  meet  on  the 
Jirst^  the  second,  the  seven- 
teenth and  the  twenty-first 
of  June. 


I  hav6  now  to  make  but  a  few  remarks  concerhing  the 
numbers. 

1st.  Unieme,  first,  is  used  only  after  vingty  trentCy  qua- 
rante^  cinquaiite^  soixante,  quatre-vingt,  cent  &  niilley  as  is 
exempli^ed  in  the  following  example  : 


C  est  la  Vm^t-unieme  fois  que 
je  lui  ecris. 


It  is  the   iwGr\\.y -Jlrst  time 
write  to  him. 


2d.  We  may  say  either  vingt-un  or  mngt  £sf  un  ;  trente- 
nn  or  trente ^^  un,  and  so  on  to  quatre-vingt ;  but  it  is  cus- 
tomary now  to  suppress  the  Conjunction  for  the  follow- 
ing numbers,  and  say,  for  instance,  vingt-deux,  etc.  trente- 
deux,  &C. 

3d.  They  said  formerly  septante  for  soixanie-dix ;  hui' 
tante  for  quatrc-vingt,  and  nonante  for  quatre-vingt-dix. 
Those  expressions  have  been  very  improperly  banished 
from  the  language,  as  they  keep  up  analogy  in  the  forma- 
tion of  numbers  and  thereby  facilitate  the  exercise  of  the 
memory  in  numbering  them.  The  first  of  these  is  now 
used  only  when  speaking  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible, 
by  seventy  great  Interpreters  ;  which  we  call  la  versiofi 
des  Septante.     The  last  is  in  use  in  Geometry  only. 

4th.  Cent  in  the  plural  is  invariable  when  followed  by 
another  number. 

EXAMPLE. 

lis  etaient  trois  cent  vingt.         I  They  were  three  hundred  and 

I       twenty. 

But  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  number,  without  being  fol- 
lowedby  another,  it  then  takes  an  *,  the  mark  oitht  plural. 

EXAMPLE. 


11  y  en  eiit  trois  c^uts  de  tues. 


There  were  three  hundred  of 
them  qf  killed. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  303 

Vingt^  in  quatre-vingt,  is  invariable,  when  followed  by 
another  number. 

EXAMPLE. 
Cette  montre  me  coute  guatre-  [  This  watch  cost  me  eighty-si's. 

vingt'Six  guinees.  1      guineas. 

But  should  it  be  followed  by   a    Noun  then   it  also 

takes  an  s, 

EXAMPLE. 

La  mienne   ne  me  coute  que  I  Mine    cost   me     only    eighty 
quatre-vingts  p-uinees.  |       guineas. 

Milk  never  takes  the  mark  of  the  plural, 

EXAMPLE. 

Dix  mille  hommes  d'  infanterie  I  Ten  thousand  infantry  and  four 
&  quatre  mille  de  cavalerie.   |       thousand  cavalry. 

In  the  marking  of  dates  we  only  write  miU 

EXAMPLE. 


L*  an  mil  huit  cent  trois  sera  a 
jamais  cclebre  clans  les 
Etats-Unis  d' Amerique,par 
r  acquisition  de  la  Louisi- 
ane. 


The  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  three  %vill  be 
forever  celebrated  in  the 
United  States,  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  Louisiana. 


The  ordinal  and  collective  numbers  will  take  the  mark 
of  the  plural, 

EXAMPLE. 


Les  quatre  firemieres  douzaijiea 
d'  ceufs  ne  valent  Hen ;  mais 
les  vingt  demieres  sont  ex- 
cellentes. 


The  four  Jirst  dozen  of  eggs 
are  gocd  for  nothing;  but 
the  tvventv  last  are  excellent. 


5th,  Onze  does  not  require  the  elision  of  vowels  before 
it,  nor  to  be  connected  v/ith  the  final  consonant  of  the  pre- 
ceding word,  as  it  is  gently  aspirated. 

EXAMPLES. 


De  o7ize  enfans  qu'  ils  etaient, 
il  en  est  mort  quatre. 

De  vingt  il  n'  en  reste  plus 
(me  onze. 


Out  of  eleven  children,  as  they 
were,  four  of  them  are  dead. 

Out  of  twenty,  eleven  only  re- 
main.   • 


Le  onze)  du  onze,  au  onze  de  Septembre. 


304  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


lis  etaient  onze — J*  irai  le  voir 
sur  les  onze  heures. 


They  were  eleven — I  shall  go 
and  see  him  about  eleven 
o'clock. 


Une^  in  that  mode  of  expression,  sur  les  une  heure, 
about  one  o'clock,  is  likewise  aspirated  like  onze. 

I  here  conclude  the  Syntax  of  the  Numbers.  Our  next 
care  will  be  to  acquaint  you  with  the  use  of  some  of  the 
remaining  Articles. 


Scholar. 

I  find  that  in  the  course  of  this  Instruction  you  have 
said  nothing  about  the  word  demi. 


Master. 

I  had  forgot  it  probably,  because  it  is  a  fractional  num- 
ber, but  this  does  not  excuse  me,  as  nothing  useful  should 
be  omitted  ;  demi  is  masculine^  when  it  precedes  a  Noun 
feminine  ;  but  it  takes  the  feminine^  when  it  comes  after 
a  Noun  of  that  gender  :  so  they  say,  une  ^(em/-heure,  half 
an  hour  ;  une  heure  &  demie,  an  hour  and  a  half 


INSTRUCTION  THE  FIFTH. 

0^  THE  POSSESSIVE  ARTICLES, 

Master. 

The  French  language  and  the  English  exhibit  per- 
haps no  greater  opposition  or  difference  in  any  part  of 
their  Syntax^  than  in  that  of  the  Possessive  Articles^  on 
which,  in  French,  there  are  some  very  difficult  and  intri- 
cate rules,  totally  foreign  to  the  idiom  of  the  English 
language.  It  will  be,  therefore,  expedient  to  make  these 
rules  the  object  of  your  most  attentive  study. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


305 


RULE   I. 

Possessive  Articles  must,  like  all  other  Articles,  be 
repeated  before  each  Substantive,  according  to  the  gender 
and  number  thereof. 

EXAMPLES. 


Mon  pere,  ma  mere,  mes  freres 
&  mes  scEurs  sont  a  la  cam- 
pagne. 

J'  ui  parle  a  son  maitre,  a  sa 
maitresse  &  a  ses  camarades 
d'  ecole. 

Ne  sortez  pas  sans  voire  para- 
sol, vos  gants  &  votrc  taba- 
tiere. 


My  father,  mother,  brothers 
and  sisters,  are  in  the  coun- 
try. 

I  spoke  to  his  master,  mistress 
and  schoolmates. 

Dont  go  out  without  your  um- 
brella, gloves  and  snuff  box. 


Observe,  that  though  a  Noun  be  feminine^  the  posses- 
sive Article  masculine  singular,  mon,  ton,  son  must  be 
respectively  used  before  it,  instead  of  ma,  ta,  sa,  should  it 
begin  with  a  vowel  or  h  mute  (see  examples  thereof 
page  50). 

RULE  IL 

Possessive  Articles  which  agree,  in  English,  with  the 
possessor,  must,  on  the  contrary,  agree,  in  French,  with 
the  gender  of  the  thing  possessed* 


EXAMPLES, 


Ramassez  son  mouchoir. 
Ramassez  son  mouchoir. 
Connaissez-vous  son  mar 
J'  ai  dans6  avec  sa  filje. 


Take  up  his  handkerchief. 
Take  up  her  handkerchief. 
Do  you  know  her  husband  ? 
I  danced  with  his  daughter. 


RULE  IIL 

In  French,  the  possessive  Article  must  be  used,  when 
we  speak  or  answer  to  relations,  friends^  &c. 


EXAMPLES 

Mon  cousin,    apportez-moi  ce 
que  vous  m'  avez  promis. 

Ma  tante,  irez-vous  ce   soir   a 
la  comedie  ? 

Non,  mon  neveu,  car  j'  ai  pro- 
mis  d'  aller  a  un  bal. 

Mo?i  frere,    prctcz-moi    voire 
plume. 

VOL.    II.  R    r 


Cousin,   bring   me    what   you 

promised  me. 
Aunt,  will  you  go  to   the  play 

this  evening  ? 
No,  nefiheiv,  for  I  promised  to 

go  to  a  ball. 
Brother,  lend  me  your  pen. 


306 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 


car  j' 


Je    ne  puis,  ma  sceur^ 

ecris  mon  theme. 
Mon  a?7iiy  approchez-vous   de 

moi. 
Mon  ca/iitaine,  je  siiis  pret  a 

vous  obeir. 
Mon  camarade,  6tiez-vous  a  ce 

combat  san giant  ? 


I  cannot,  sister^  for  I  am  writ- 
ing my  exercise. 
Frknd)  come  near  me. 

Captain^  I  am  ready  to  obey 

you. 
Comrade^   were    you    at    that 

bloody  engagement? 


RULE  IV. 


When,  in  English,  the  possessive  Articles  its^  their^ 
relating  to  inanimate  objects,  can  be  rendered  by  of  it, 
of  them,  or  thereof  they  are  always  expressed  in  French, 
by  the  Adverb  en  ;  otherwise  they  are  expressed  by 
son,  sa,  ses,  leurs  respectively,  as  will  appear  in  the 
following 


EXAMPLES. 


La  Delaware  -^st  une  belle 
riviere  ;  le  lit  en  est  assez 
profond  pour  admettre  de 
gros  vaisseaux. 

Comment  trouvez-vous  sa  mai- 
son  de  campagne  ?  La  situa- 
tion n'  en  est-elle  pas  char- 
man  te  ? 

Cette  affaire  est  delicate  ;  ie 
succes  en  est  douteux. 

Cette  simple  est  fort  com- 
mune ;  cependant  je  n'  en 
connais  pas  les  vertus. 

Avez-vous  lu  mon  livre  ?  Le 
caractere  n'  en  est  il  pas  bien 
beau  ? 

II  y  a  un  tres-grand  verger 
derrierc  sa  maison  ;  les  ar- 
bres  en  sont  tres-bien  plantes; 
les  fruits  en  sont  excellens. 

La  Tamise  est  sortie  de  son 
lit. 

C  est  une  petite  maison  qui  a 
sea  commodites. 


The  Delaware  is  a  fine  river  ; 
its  cl)annei  is  deep  enough 
to  admit  of  large  vessels. 

How  do  you  like  his  country 
seat  ?  Is  not  the  situation 
thereof  pleasing  ? 

This  business  is  delicate  ;  its 

success  is  doubtful. 
This  plant  is  very  common  ; 

yet  I  do  not   know  its  pro- 
perties. 
Have  you  read  my  book  ?  Is 

not    the    type    thereof  very 

beautiful  ? 
There  is  a  very  large  orchard 

behind  his  house  ;  the  tree* 

of  it  are  very  well  planted  ; 

the  fruits  Me/To/"  excellent. 
The  Thames  went  out  of  its 

channel. 
it  is  a  small  house  which  has 

its  conveniencies. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


307 


Philadelphie  a  scs  beautes  ;  J' 
admire  la  regularite  &  la 
proprete  de  ses  rues. 

Voila  des  arbres  qui  etendent 
leurs  branches  bien  loin. 


Philadelphia  has  its  beauties  ; 
I  admire  the  regularity  and 
cleanliness  of  its  streets. 

Those  trees  spread  their 
branches  very  far. 


Observe,  that  in  matters  of  science,  custom  authorises 
the  use  of  the  possessive  Article,  though  it  might  be  ren- 
dered, in  English,  by  of  it ;  and  so,  in  speaking  of  a  tri- 
angle, we  may  say ;  ses  angles  valent  cent  quatre-vingt 
degres,  its  angles  are  equal  to  one  hundred  and  eiglity 
degrees.  In  speaking  of  a  grammar,  we  may  say  ;  ses 
regies  sont  trop  compliqu^es,  its  rules  are  too  compli- 
cated, he. 


RULE  V. 

The  English  possessive  Articles  my,  thy,  his,  her,  &c. 
are  rendered,  in  French,  by  the  passive  personal  Pronoun^ 
and  the  Articles  Indicative  le,  la,  les',  when  the  Verb, 
which  precedes  them,  denotes  an  action  over  any  part  of 
the  body, 

EXAMPLES. 


Vous  lui  avez  roinpu  le  bias. 
Vous  m'  avez  marche  sur  le 

pied. 
II  faudra  lid  couper  la  jambc. 
Vous  me  blessez  la  main. 
II  ne  peut  sortir ;  la  goute  lui 

a  enfie  les  jambes. 
Je  7ne  suis  fait  couper  les  che- 

veux. 


You  broke  her  arm. 
You  trod  on  my  foot. 

His  \ft^  must  be  cut  off. 

You  hurt  my  bund. 

He  cannot  go  out ;  the 

has  swelled  his  legs. 
I  had  my  hair  cut. 


gout 


RULE  VI. 


P  Wlien,  from  the  Indicative  Article  being  inadequate  to 

1;  the   removal  of   equivocality  of  expression,  the  passive 

\  I  Pronouns  cannot  be  used,  the  English  Articles  posses- 

■  sive  are  rendered,  in  French,  by  their  correspondents. 


EXAMPLES. 


Je  vois  que  ynon  bras  enfle. 
Penscz-vous   que    sa  blessure 
se  gu6risse  jamais  ? 


I  see  that  my  arm  is  swelling. 
Do  you  believe  his  v/ound  will 
ever  be  cured  ? 


50» 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASV 


Elle  lui  donna  sa  main  a  bai- 

ser. 
Elle  donna  hardiment  son  bras 

au  chirurgien  qui  devait  la 

saigner. 


She    gave    him   her   hand    to 

kiss. 
She  boldly  gave  her  arm  to  the 

surgeon  that  was  to  bleed 

her. 


But  observe,  that,  as  soon  as  the  Article^  ov^ring  to  the 
perspicuity  of  the  sentence,  may  be  used  without  appre- 
hension of  equivocation^  the  Article  ««,  a  la^  &c.  is  sub- 
stituted to  the  Article  possessive. 


EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  mal  a   /'   oreille  Sc  aux 

yeux. 
J'  ai  grand  mal  a  la  gorge. 
N*   avez-vous  jamais  eu  mal 

aujc  dents  ? 
Non ;  mais  j'  ai  fort  sou  vent 

mal  a  P  estomac. 
J*   ai    eu   mal   au  '  coeur  u  T 

eglise. 
J'  ai  mal  a  la  tete,  au  cote  & 

aux  reins. 


My  ears  and  eyes  ache,  or  are 

sore. 
I  have  a  violent  sore  throat. 
Have  you  never  had  the  tooth- 

ach? 
No  ;  but  I  have  often  a  pain  in 

my  stomach. 
My  heart  was  faint  at  church. 

I  feel  a  pain  in  rny  head,  side 
and  loins. 


RULE  VIL 

The  elliptical  term  mine^  le  mien,  8s:c.  in  French,  must 
agree,  both  in  gender  and  number^  with  the  Noun  to  which 
they  relate. 

EXAMPLES. 


Quand  vous  m'  aurez  dit  votre 
sentiment,  je  vous  dirai  k 
mien. 

Songez-y  de  votre  cote  ;  J'  y 
songerai  ausi  du  mien, 

Sa  voiture  Sc  la  mienne  sont 
arrivees. 

Ses  amis  &  Ics  miens  s'  en  sont 
meles. 

J*  ai  perdu  mon  canif,  prttez- 
moi  le  -votre. 

Leur  maison  est  presque  vis-a- 
vis de  ia  notre. 

Le  Roi  etait  dans  son  carrosse, 
&  la  Reine  dans  le  siem 


When  you  have  told  me  your 
opinion,  I  will  tell  you  mine. 

Think  about  it,  on  your  part ; 

I  will  on  mine. 
His     carriage     and    mine   are 

come. 
His    friends    and    mine    have 

meddled  with  it* 
I  have  lost  my  pen-knife,  lend 

me  yours. 
Their  house  is  almost  opposite 

to  ours. 
The  King   was  in  his  coach 

and  the  Queen  in  her^. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


509 


RULE  VIII. 

When,  in  English,  mine^  &c.  are  preceded  by  of^  then 
they  are  rendered  by  the  Article  possessive  mon^  &c.  in 
such  occasions  as  the  following 

EXAMPLES. 


Un  de  mes  parens  vient  d'  ar- 

river  des  Indes. 
C    est   une    de   mes  connais- 

sances. 
Deux  de  sea  domestiques  1*  ont 

vole. 
Un  de  leurs  chevaux  boite. 


A  relation  of  mine  is  just  arriv- 
ed from  the  Indies. 
He  is  an  acquaintance  of  mine. 

Two  servants   of  his   robbed 

him. 
A  horse  of  theirs  is  lame. 


RULE  IX. 


Should  any  of  the  Possessive  Articles  be  preceded  by 
the  Verb  to  be,  having  for  its  subject  a  Noun  or  the  Pro- 
nouns it,  they.  Sec.  they  are  expressed,  in  French,  by  a 
moif  d  toi^  d  soi^  d  lui,  d  elle,  d  euXy  d  elies. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ce  livre  est-il  a  vous  ?  Non,  il 
est  a  lui,  ou  d  elle. 

Cette  prairie  est  d  nous  &  ce 
bois  est  d  eux. 

La  terre  etait  a  moiy  a  present 
elle  est  d  toi. 

On  m'  a  dit  que  c'  etait  d  lui  ; 
s'  il  etait  d  moi,  je  m'  en  de- 
ferais  le  plus  promptement 
possible. 

S'  ils  etaient  d  moiy  je  les  gar- 
de rais. 


Is  this  book  yours  ?  No,  it  is 
A/«,  or  hers. 

This  meadow  is  ours,  and  this 
wood  is  theirs. 

The  land  was  mine,  now  it  is 
thine, 

I  have  been  told  that  it  wasAw?; 
if  it  were  mine,  I  would  get 
rid  of  it  as  quick  as  possi- 
ble. 

If  they  were  mine,  I  would 
keep  them. 


310 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  SIXTH. 


ON  THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  ARTICLE,  ^t 


Master. 

It  is  useless  to  repeat  what  has  ah-eady  been  said,  con- 
cerning the  gender  and  number  of  this  Article,  in  the  Jirst 
part  of  this  work,  to  which  you  may  have  recourse  :  I 
will  merely  observe  that,  like  all  others,  it  must  be  re- 
pealed before  every  Substantive  with  appropriate  gender 
and  number,  as  is  exemplified  in  the  following  beautiful 
passage  from  Racine's  Berenice, 


"  De  cette  nuit,  Phenice,  as-tu  vu  la  splendeur  ? 
Tes  yeux  ne  sont-ils  pas  tout  pleins  de  sa  grandeur  ? 
Ces  flambeaux,  ce  bucher,  cette  nuit  enflammee, 
Ces  aigles,  ces  faisceaux  ;  ce  peuple,  cette  armee, 
Cette  foule  de  Rois,  ces  Consuls,  ce  Senat, 
Qui  tous  de  mon  amant  empruntaient  leur  eclat ; 
Cette  pompe,  cet  or  que  rehaussait  sa  gloire, 
Et  ces  lauriers  encore,  temoins  de  sa  victoire." 


In  or-der  to  render  the  above  words  more  fully  deter- 
minative of  the  object  spoken  of,  we  often,  in  familiar 
language,  add  the  small  words  ci  and  Id, 

EXAMPLES. 


Cct    homme-w    est   honnete ; 

mais   cct  homme-/a  est  un 

coquin. 
Cette  amee-a  ne  nous    a  pas 

ete  favorable. 
Ces  plumes-c7  sent  meilleures 

que  cellf-S-ld. 
Cdie  maison-cz  est  a  vendre  & 

cdle-la  est  a  louer. 


This  man  is  honest;  but  that 
man  is  a  rogue. 

This  year  has  not  been  favora- 
ble to  us. 

'These  pens  are  better  than 
those, 

lids  house  is  to  be  sold,  and 
that  is  to  be  let. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


11 


RULE  I. 

The  words  this  and  that^  when  used  to  point  at  some 
object,  without  naming  it^  are  rendered,  in  French,  by 
ceciy  cela, 

EXAMPLES. 


Ceci  est   bon,    cela   est   mau- 

vais. 
Donnez-moi   ceci  &  envoyez- 

lui  cela, 
Ceci  est  plus   surprenant  que 

cela, 
Ceci  fut  approuve  de  quelques- 

uns  ;    mais    cela    deplut    a 

toute  la  compagnie. 


T/iis  is  good,  t/iat  is  bad. 

Give  me  tMs,  and  send  him 

t/iat. 
This  is  more  surprising  than 

that. 
This  was  approved  by  a  few  ; 

but  tluit  displeased  the  whole 

company. 


'^  RULE  n. 

That  rohich  is  rendered,  in  French,  by  ce  qiii^  ce  que^ 
and  xvhat  by  ce  qui  only :  ce  qui  is  used  as  subject^  and 
ce  que  as  object  in  a  sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ce  qui  le  fache,  c'  est  de  n' 
avoir  pas  reussi. 

Ce  qui  me  rejouit,  c'  est  de 
voiis  avoir  vu  &c  toute  votre 
famille  en  bonne  sante. 

Ce  qui  me  plait,  vous  deplait. 

Ce  qui  lui  est  arrive,  est  bien 

triste. 
Ce  qui  est  agreable  au  gout, 

est  souvent  contraire    a   la 

santc. 
Ce  que  je  vous  dis,  est  vrai. 
Je  sais  ce  que  vous  pensez  de 

cela. 
Avouez   franchement    ce    que 

vous  avez  fait. 


That  which  grieves  him,  is  to 
have  not  succeeded. 

That  which  rejoices  me,  is  to 
have  seen  you  and  all  your 
family  in  good  health. 

Tliat  which  pleases  me,  dis- 
pleases you. 

That  which  happened  him,  is 
very  melancholy. 

That  which  is  agreeable  to  the 
taste,  is  often  prejudicial  to 
health. 

That  which  Itell  you,  is  true. 

I  know  what  you  think  of  it. 

Own  candidly  what  you  have 
done. 


313 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 


RULE  III. 

Whenever  ce  qui^  ce  qiie^  or  ce  dont  (de  quoi)  hce  a  quoi 
begin  a  sentence  composed  of  two  members,  ce  must  be 
repeated^  in  French,  before  the  Verb  Stre^  which  begins 
the  second  member,  provided  it  be  followed  by  another 
Verby  a  Noun  plural,  or  a  Pronoun, 


EXAMPLES. 


Ce  qui  m'  amuse,  c'  est  d'  ap- 

prendre  ma  lecon. 
Ce  qui  me  chagrine,  c'  est  de 

n*  avoir  point  d'  occupation. 
Ce  que  je  crains  le  plus,  ce  sont 

les  trahisons. 
Ce  que  je  deteste  le  plus,  ce 

sont  les  injuslices. 
Ce  que  j'  aime  le  mieux,  c'  est 

d'  etre  seul. 
Ce  dont  je  me  plains,  c'  est  qu' 

il  soit  soi-ti  sans  permission. 

Ce  a  quci  V  avare  pense  le 
moins,  c'  est  de  jouir  de  ses 
richesses. 

Ce  qui  m'  attache  a  la  vie,  c* 
est  vous. 


That  which  diverts  me,  is  to 
learn  my  lesson. 

That  which  vexes  me,  is  to  be 
without  employment. 

That  which  I  fear  most  is  trea- 
son. 

That  which  I  hate  most  is  in- 
justice. 

That  which  I  like  best,  is  to  be 
alone. 

That  of  which  I  complain,  is 
that  he  is  gone  out  without 
leave. 

That  of  which  a  niibcr  thinks 
the  least,  is  to  enjoy  his 
riches. 

That  which  keeps  me  attached 
to  life,  is  you. 


But,  should  the  Verb  etre  be  follovy^ed  by  a  Noun^  sin- 
gular, instead  of  a  Verb^  then  ce  may,  or  may  not,  be  re- 
peatedy  according  to  the  choice  or  taste  of  the  writer, 
which  circumstances  ought  to  regulate. 

EXAMPLES. 


That  which  provokes  me  is  m- 

justice. 
That  which  I  say  is  the  truth. 


That  which  I  hate  in  a  young 
man,  is  laziness. 


Ce  qui  m'  indigne  est,  ou  c*  est 

1'  injustice. 
Ce  que  je  dis  est,  gu  c'  est  la 

verite. 
Ce  que  je  hais  dans  un  je  une 

homme,  est,  ou  c'  est  la  pa- 

ressc. 

Cc  should  be  omitted  before  rtre^  if  it  be  followed  by 
an  Adjective  or  a  pmt  Participle. 

EXAMPLES. 

Ce  qu:  11  dit,  cat  fait  pour  vous  |  That  which  he  says,  is  calculat- 
ed to  highten  you. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


313 


Ck  que  vous  venez  de  m'  ap- 
prendre,  est  bien  facheux. 

Ce  dont  j*  avals  peur  est  ar- 
rive. 

•Ce  que  j*  ai  mange  etait  deli- 
cieux. 


That  of  which  you  have  just 
been  informing  me,  is  very- 
unfortunate. 

That  of  vjhich  I  was  afraid 
has  happened. 

That  ivhich  I  ate  was  delici- 
ous. 

'  Scholar. 

I  have  observed  that  many  Americans  make  blunders 
in  the  use  of  ce  qui,  ce  que,  in  French,  by  erroneously 
substituting  one  for  the  other ;  which  mistake  appears 
so  much  the  more  natural,  as  the  two  expressions  above 
are  rendered,  in  English,  by  the  same  words  that  which. 
Could  not  you  give  me  such  rules,  as  to  effectually  pre- 
vent these  mistakes  ? 

Master. 

I  assigned  the  real  difference  between  ce  qui  and  ce  que, 
when  I  first  mentioned  these  idiomatical  terms  :  I  will 
now  speak  a  language  more  mechanical. — When  that 
vjhich  is,  in  English,  placed  immediately  before  a  Verb, 
it  is  rendered,  in  French,  by  ce  qui, 

EXAMPLE. 

Ce  qui  coute  peu  est  trop  cher.  That  nuJdch  costs  cheap  is  too 
des  qu'  il  n'  est  pas  neces-  dear,  when  it  is  not  neces- 
saire.  sary. 

Should  a  Pronoun  intervene  between  that  •which  and 
the  Verb,  that  which  is  always  rendered  by  ce  que, 

EXAMPLES. 

Nous  ne  devrions  jamais  par- 1  We  ought  never  to  speak  of 
ler  de  ce  que  nous  ne  savons  J      that  which  we  don't  know. 


pas. 
Ce  que  vous  proposez  la  pour 
le   guerir,  n*  est  que  de    1' 
onguent  miton-mitaine. 


That  ivhich  you  pro]X)se  to  cure 
him  is  mere  powder  of  post. 


RULE  IV. 

This,  that,  these,  Jh9s.e,  when  used  in  order  to  avoid 
the  repetition  of  the  Noun  they  relate  to,  are  rendered,  iu 
French,  by  celui,  s.  m.  celle,  s,  f.  ceux,  PL.  m.  ceiles,  PL.  f. 

EXAMPLES. 

II  depense  tout  son  bien  &  ceiui  |  He  is  spending  all  his  estate 
de  sa  femme.  1      and  that  of  his  wife. 


VOL.  II. 


s  s 


514 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Cette  maison  est  plus  petite 
que  celle  de  votre  frere. 

Ses  chevaux  sont  plus  beaux 
que  ceux  du  Roi. 

Mes  vaches  donnent  plus  de 
lait  que  celles  de  mon  voisin. 


This  house  is  smaller  than 
tJmt  of  your  brother. 

His  horses  are  finer  than  those 
of  the  King. 

My  cows  give  more  milk  than 
those  of  my  neighbour. 


Observe,  that  ci  and  la  are  annexed  to  the  above  words, 
in  pointing  or  alluding  to  the  contrast  or  comparison  of 
objects. 

EXAMPLES. 


Voila  plusieurs  draps  ;  choisis- 
sez  celui'Ciy  ou  celui-la, 

Je  ne  veux  ni  de  celui-ci  ni  de 
celui-la. 

La  vertu  &  le  vice  produissent 
des  effets  diff6rens  ;  celui-ci 
cause  le  malheur  de  V  horn- 
me,  celle -la  le  rend  heureux. 

Voila  des  poires  &  des  abricots; 
ceux-ci  sont  murs,  celles-/a 
ne  le  sont  pas  encore. 

Le  corps  perit,  1'  ame  est  im- 
morttlie ;  cependant  nous 
negligeons  celle-ci  &  nous 
sacrifions  tout  pour  celui-la. 


There  are  several  cloths ;  chuse 
this  or  that* 

I  will  have  neither  this  one  nor 
that. 

Virtue  and  vice  produce  differ- 
ent effects ;  this  causes  the 
misery  of  man,  that  makes 
him  happy. 

Here  are  pears  and  apricots ; 
these  are  ripe,  but  those  arc 
not  yet  so. 

The  body  perishes,  the  soul  is 
immortal ;  nevertheless,  wa 
neglect  this  and  sacrifice 
every  thing  for  that. 


RULE  V. 

Such  expressions  as  he  toho^  she  who^  they  whOy  that 
who^  that  whichj  those  who^  such  as,  &c.  are  expressed, 
in  French,  by  ceiui  qui,  s.  m.  celle  qui,  s.  f.  ceux  qui,  pl. 
M.  celies  qui,  PL.  f. — he  whom,  ££?c.  that  which  (being  ob- 
jects) are  rendered  by  celui  que,  &c. 

EXAMPLES. 


Celui  qui  ne  sait  pas  garder  un 
secret,  est  indigne  de  con- 
fiance. 

Celle  qui  vient  de  passer,  est 
mariee. 

Ceux  qui  sont  paresseux,  ne 
connaissent  pas  le  prix  du 
tems. 


He  who  does  not  know  how  to 
keep  a  secret,  is  unworthy 
of  confidence. 

She  ivho  just  went  by,  is  mar- 
ried. 

Such  as  are  idle,  know  not  the 
value  of  time. 


1 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


315 


Ccux  qui  sont  contens  de  leur 

sort,  sont  heureux, 
Celles  qvi  ont  le  mieux  danse, 

ont  ete  recompensees. 
On  doit  encourager  les  efforts 

de    ceux   qui    s'   applique nt 

aux  arts  &  aux  sciences. 

Celui  que  vous  voyez  a  man- 
que d'  etre  pendu. 

Ceux  que  vous  protegez,  vous 
trahissent. 


Those  ivho  are  contented  with 

their  condition,  are  happy. 
Those   who   have    danced   the 

best,  have  been  rewarded. 
We   ought  to  encourage   the 

efforts  of   those    who  apply 

themselves  to  the  arts  and 

sciences. 
He  whom  you  see,  had  like  to 

be  hanged. 
They  whom  you  protect,  betray 

you. 


Observe,  1st.  That  qui  may  be  separated  from  celui  ; 
in  that  case  la  is  joined  to  it ;  so  instead  of  saying, 


Celui  qui  medit  de  son  pro- 
chain  est  un  mechant  hom- 
me, 


jy^wAo  slanders  his  neighbours 
is  a  wicked  man, 


We  may  say, 


Celui-la  est  un  mechant  homme 
qui  medit  de  son  prochain. 


He\s2i  wicked  man,  who  slan- 
ders his  neighbours. 


And  instead  of 

Ceux  qui  negligent  de  payer  |  These  who  neglect  to  pay  their 
leurs  dettes,  se  preparent  I  debts,provide  for  themselves 
bien  des  chagrins,  I      much  care, 


We  may  say, 


Ceux'la  se  preparent  bien  des 
chagrins,  qui  negligent  de 
payer  leurs  dettes. 


They  provide  for  themselves 
much  care,  who  neglect  to 
pay  their  debts. 


2d.  If  a  question  be  asked  by  the  English  relative 
which,  it  is,  in  French,  rendered,  in  the  answer,  by  celui 
qui^  celle  qui,  &c.  in  such  occasions  as  the  following 

EXAMPLE. 


LaqueUe  de  ces  deux  oranges 
voulez-vous  ?  Celle  qui  vous 
plaira. 


Which  of  these  two  ornnge? 
will  you  have  ?  Which  you 
please. 


116 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  VI. 

Ce  joined  to  the  Verb  Stre  requires  it  should  accord 
with  the  Substantive  that  follows. 


EXAMPLES. 


C  est  votre  tems,  ce  sont  vos 
soins^  vos  affections,  c'  est 
vous-meme  qu'  il  faut  don- 
ner  a  votre  ami. 

Si  ce  n'  est  pas  la  religion,  ce 
sont  les  coutumes  qu'  on  y 
revere  au  lieu  de  lois. 

Sont-ce  la  Tos  gens  ? 

Ce  furent  ces  associations  qui 
firent  fleurir  si  long-terns  la 
Grece. 

Ce  furent  les  Francais  qui  pri- 
rent  la  place  d'  assaut. 


It  is  your  time,  it  is  your  cares 
and  affections,  it  is  yourself 
you  must  bestow  on  yom* 
friend. 

If  it  be  not  religion,  it  is  cus- 
tom that  is  venerated  there 
instead  of  the  law. 

^re  these  your  people  ? 

It  was  those  associations  that 
made  Greece  flourish  so 
long. 

It  was  the  French  who  took 
the  place  by  storm. 


The  poets  and  some  prose-writers  often,  with  elegance, 
deviate  from  the  above  rule. 

Observe,  that  if  etre  be  followed  by  several  Nouns,  in 
the  singular,  it  remains  in  the  singular,  though  those 
Nouns  united  be  equivalent  to  ?i  plural. 


EXAMPLES. 


C  est  votre  frere  &  votre  ami, 
qui  vous  demandent. 

Ce  qui  fait  le  triomphe  d'  une 
femme,  c'  eM  la  vertu  &  i' 
esprit. 


It  is  your  brother  and  your 
friend  who  ask  for  you. 

That  which  makes  the  triumph 
of  a  woman  is  virtue  and  un- 
derstanding, 


RULE  vn. 

Should  the  Verb  she  be  followed  by  a  plural  Pronoun, 
it  remains  notwithstanding  in  the  siiigular,  except  that 
Pronoun  be  of  the  third  person  plural  \  and  then  it  as- 
sumes the  number  corresponding  thereto. 

EXAMPLES. 


C  est  nous    qui  avons  enleve 
le  drapeau. 


It  is  we  who  have  carried  the 
colors  off. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


3ir 


£si-ce     nous    qui     1'     avons 

oublie  ? 
Cefut  nous  qu'  on  choisit  pour 

cette  expedition. 
C*  est  vous,  Messieurs,  qui  en 

etes  cause. 
Est^ce   vous,  Mesdames,  qui 

avez  danse  les  premieres  ? 
Ce  sont  eux  qui  lui  apprendront 

la  vraie  maniere  de  se  bien 

conduire  dans  le  monde. 
Est'CC    eux    qui    s'    y    oppo- 

sentj  *. 
C*  etaient  elles  qui  fesaient  les 

honneurs  de  la  maison. 


Is  it  we  who  have  forgot  it? 

It  was  w£  that  were  chosen 

for  that  expedition. 
It  is  you,  Gentlemen,  who  arc 

the  cause  of  it. 
Is  it  you,  Ladies,  who  danced 

the  first  ? 
It  is  they  who  will  teach  him 

the  true  manner  of  behaving 

in  the  world. 
Is  it  they  who  are  against  it  ? 

It  was  they  who  did  the  honors 
of  the  house. 


RULE  VIII. 

When  a  question  is  asked,  in  French,  by  e^t-ce  la; 
sont-ce  la,  &c.  if  it  relate  to  a  thing,  the  answer,  in  the 
affirmative  is,  oui^  ce  P  est ;  if  to  several ;  oui  ce  les  sont ; 
but  if  to  persons,  the  proper  Pronouns  are  used  and  placed 
after  the  Verb  etre* 

EXAMPLES. 


Eat-ce  La  la  maison  de  votre 

pere  ?   Oui,  ce  V  est, 
Est<e  la  votre  mouchoir  ?  Oui, 

ce  I'  est — M)n,  ce  ne  /'  est 

pas, 
Sont-ce  la  vos  gants  ?   Oui,  ce 

les  sont — jyon  ce  ne  les  sont 

pas, 
Sont-ce  la  ses  amusemens?  Oui, 

ce  les  sont, 
Est-ce  la  leur  maitre  de  Fran- 


^ais  ?   Oui,  c'  est  lui. 


Old, 


Etait-ce    la     sa 

c'  etait  elle, 
Sont'Ce  Id  vos  amis  ?    Oui,  ce 

sont  eux, 
Sont-ce  Id  vos  parentes  ?  Oui, 

ce  sont  elles. 


Is  this   your  father's  house  ? 

Yes,  it  is. 
Is    tliat    your    handkerchief? 

Yes,  it  is — JVo,  it  is  not, 

Are  these   your    gloves  ?    Yes, 
they  are — A^o,  they  are  not. 

Are    these   his    amusements 

Yes,  they  are. 
Is  that  their  French  master 

Yes,  it  is  he. 
Was  tfiat  his,    or   her  sister 

Yes,  she  was. 
Are  these   your 

they  are. 
Are   these    your 

Yes  they  are. 


friends  ?    Yes, 
kinswomen  ? 


*  In  an  interrogation  sont-ce  eux  ?  would  be  too  grating  to  the  ear,  the 
singular  e^t-ce  tux  ?  though  it  jnilitut<;s  against  the  above  rule,  i«  preferred. 


318 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Observe,  1st,  When  such  an  indeterminate  question 
as,  sont'Ce  des  homjnes  que  je  vols  ?  are  those  I  see  men  I 
is  asked  :  the  answer  is,  c'  en  est j  yes,  they  are  :  one  can- 
not answer  c'  en  sont^  which  would  be  quite  as  harsh  as 
sont'CC  eux  P 

2d,  The  answer  to  such  a  question  as  est-ce  la  nos  gens  P 
are  these  our  people  ?  (which  can  be  resolved,  in  French, 
by  cela  est-il  nos  gens  ?  is  that  our  people  ?)  is,  oui^  c'  est 
eux;  that  is  to  say,  cela  est  eux — But,  if  the  question  was 
expressed  tlms,  which  is  the' most  correct,  sont-ce  la  nos 
gens  l  the  answer  would  be,  ce  aont  eux. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  SEVENTH. 

OjY  the  CONJUJ^CTIVE  elliptical    words  QUIy 
QUE,  efr. 

RULE  I. 

Who^  that  and  which,  not  acted  upon  by  a  Preposition, 
are  expressed,  in  French,  by  qui,  which,  when  these  words 
are  placed  before  a  Ferb,  in  English,  if  some  one  of  the 
active  Pronouns  /,  thou,  he,  be  not  interposed  between 
either  of  them  and  the  Verb,  is  appropriate  to  a?2y  object 
to  be  determined. 


EXAMPLES. 


1/  homme  gid  parle,  est  un  de 
mes  amis. 

La  demoiselle  qui  me  parle,  a 
etc  dangereusement  ma- 
lade. 

La  fern  me  qrd  prend  soin  de 
son  menage  est  estimable. 

Vo3^ez-vous  ccs  chevaux  qui 
courent  ? 

Pasaez-moi  le  plat  gid  est  sur 
la  table. 


The  man   'w/io    speaks,    is  a 

friend  of  mine. 
Thie  young-  lady  ivho  speaks  to 

me,   has  been  dangerously 

ill. 
The  woman  who  takes  care  ot 

her  house  is  estimable. 
Do  you  ^i'G  those  horses  that 

run  ? 
Hand  me  the  dish  which  is  on 

the  table. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


319 


RULE  II. 

When  whow^  that,  or  xvhich  are  placed  before  a  Verb 
attended  by  eitlL?r  of  the  a<5?/?;^  Pronouns  /,  thou,  &c.  they 
are  translated,  in  French,  by  que> 

EXAMPLES. 


La  dame   que  vous  avez  vue, 

doit  se  luaiier    la  semaine 

prochaine. 
Est-ce   la  le  chapeau  neuf  que 

vous  avez  achet^  ? 
La  le9on  que  j'  ai  apprise,  est 

loneue  Sc  difficile. 


The  lady  ivhom  you  have  seen, 
is  to  be  married  next  week. 

Is  that  the  new  hat  'o^hich  you 

bought  ? 
The  lesson  "Mich   I  learnt,  is 

long  and  difficult. 


EXCEPTION. 

Who  or  wboju,  though  placed  before  an  active  Pronoun,  when  it  is  meant 
to  express  lubat  person,  must  be  translated  by  qui. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  sais  qui  vous  voulez  dire. 
Devinez  qui  j'  aime. 
Je  ne  saurais  deviner  qui  vous 
aimez. 


Ehbien  I  vous  ne  saurez 
mais  qui  c*  est. 


ja- 


I  know  ii'honi  you  mean. 

Guess  w/wm  I  love. 

I  cannot  guess  lukom  you  love. 

Well  I  you  will  never  know 
who  it  is. 


RULE  IIL 

Of  whom^  of  whichy  or  whose  are  generally  expressed 
by  dont^  for  all  sorts  of  objects  (singular  or  plural,  mas- 
culine or  feminine)  when  the  Noun  they  relate  to,  is  the 
subject  or  object  of  a  sentence.  Of  xvhom^  or  whose^  re- 
lating to  persons  only,  may  also  be  rendered  by  de  qui» 

EXAMPLES. 


Dieu  de   qui  ou  dont  nous  ad- 

iTiirons  les  ceuvres. 
C  est  rhommerfe  quioudoni, 

je  vous  ai  parle.  • 
Les  heros  de  qui   ou   dont    il 

tire  son  origine. 


God  wh^se  works  we  admire. 

It  is  the  man  of  whom  I  spoke 

to  you. 
The  heroes  of  ivhom  he  drav.s 

his  oriyjir. 


.'?20 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Est-ce  la  k  cheval  dont  vous 
venez  de  faire  V  acquisition  ? 

Le  moyen  dont  il  s*  est  servi, 

n'  est  pas  honnete. 
C  est  une  maladie  dont  on  ne 

connait  point  la  cause. 
C*  est  un  evenement  dont  il  n' 

est  point  fait  mention  dans 

I'histoire. 


Is  that  the  horse  of  which  you 
have  just  now  made  a  pur- 
chase ? 

The  means  of  which  he  made 
use,  is  not  honest. 

It  is  an  illness  the  cause  of 
which  is  unknown. 

It  is  an  event  of  which  no  ac- 
count is  given  in  history. 


Observe,  that,  from  whom  is  always  rendered  by  de  qui 
•and  never  by  dont, 

EXAMPLES. 


Le  jeune  homme   de  qui  j'  ai 

re9U  une  lettre,  il  y  a  quel- 

que  terns,  est  mort. 
Le  negociant  de   qui  vous  re- 

clamez  cet  argent,  vient  de 

faire  banqueroute. 
Les  gens  dc  qui  vous  attendez 

tant  de  services,  vous  trom- 

pent. 


The  young  man  from  whom  I 
received  a  letter,  some  time 
ago,  is  dead. 

The  merchanty7-om  whom  you 
claim  that  money,  has  just 
been  a  bankrupt.  . 

The  people  from  whom  you 
expect  so  many  services,  de- 
ceive you. 


RULE  IV. 

Instead  of  donty  we  use,  in  French,  1st,  de  qui  in.  &  f.  s. 
8c  p.  or  duquel,  m.  s.  de  laquelle^  f.  s.  &c.  for  persons  ;  and 
2dly,  duquel^vs\,  s,delaqiielleyLs,^c.  (and  never  <3^^  qui) 
for  things^  when  the  sense  or  construction  of  the  phrase 
admits  of  a  Nguji  acted  upon  by  a  Preposition  placed 
between  them  and  the  Noun  it  relates  to. 


EXAMPLES. 


1st, 


C  est  un  homme  a  la  prudence 
de  qui  ou  duqucl  vous  pou- 
vez  vous  lier. 

II  me  faut  une  fenime  de 
chambre  sur  la  conduite  de 
qui  ou  de  laquclle  il  n'  y  arien 
a  redire. 

Je  chercbe  un  negociant  sur 
r  honneur  &:  la  probite  de 
qui  ou  duquel  il  ne  pent  y 
avoir  de  doute. 


1st, 


He  is  a  man  to  whose  prudence 
or  to  the  prudence  of  whom 
you  may  trust. 

I  want  a  chambermaid  mw/wse 
behaviour,  or  in  the  behav- 
iour of  whom,  there  is  no- 
thing to  censure. 

I  am  looking  after  a  merchant 
of  the  honor  and  probity  of 
whom  there  is  no  doubt. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


321 


2d, 
La  Seine,  dans  le  lit  de  laquelle 
viennent  se  jeter  plusieurs 
rivieres,    arrose    la   Cham- 
pagne, r  Islede  France  &;c. 

Voila  un  regiment  a  la  valeur 
duquel  V  ennemi  H'  a  pu 
resister. 

Les  passionsviolentessont  des 
maladies  aux  progres  des- 
quelles  on  ne  saurait  appor- 
terdetrop  prompts  remedes. 


2d, 

The  Seine,  in  the  channel  of 
nuhich  several  rivers  empty 
their  waters,  runs  through 
Champaign,  the  Isle  of 
France,  &:c. 

There  is  a  regiment  whose  va- 
lor the  enemy  could  not 
resist. 

Violent  passions  are  ills  to  the 
progress  of  w/iic/i oi\q  cannot 
apply  too  quick  remedies. 


RULE  V. 

When  whom  and  which  are  governed  by  the  Preposi- 
tions to^  on,  in,  &c.  the  former,  applying  to  persons  or 
personijied  beings  only,  is  translated  by  qui;  and  the  latter, 
applying  to  things  or  animals,  by  lequel,  &c. 


EXAMPLES. 


1st, 


Votre  pere  est  un  homme  a 
qui  j'  ai  beaucoup  d'  obliga- 
tions, en  qui  j'  ai  mis  ma 
confiance,  8c  sans  qui  je  se- 
rais mort  a  present. 

Le  negociant  fiour  qui  je  tiens 
les  livres   est  tres-opulent. 

Les  amis  sur  qui  vous  comp- 
tez  vous   abandonneront. 

Dieu  vers  qui  vous  tournez  vo- 
tre coeur  vous  aidera. 

La  Mort  a  qui  tout  cede  n' 
effraye  pas  le  sage. 

2d, 
Et  cette  mort  d  laqudle  vous 

ne  vous   attendiez  pas  vous 

a  effraye. 
Le   cheval     auquel  vous  avez 

donne  a  manger  n'  est  pas 

a  moi. 
Le   plaisir  auquel  vous     vous 

livrez  estnuisible  a  la  sante. 

VOL.    II.  '] 


1st, 


Your  father  is  a  man  to  who7n 
I  am  much  obliged,  in  ivhom 
I  have  put  my  confidence, 
and  ivithout  nuhom  I  should 
have  been  now  dead. 

The   merchant    for    whom    I 
keep  accounts  is  very  wealthy. 

The  friends  on  who?n  you  de- 
pend will  forsake  you. 

God  towards  whom  you  turn 
your  heart  will  help  you. 

Death  to  whom  every  thing 
yields  does  not  frighten  the 
sage. 

2d, 

And  that  death  which  you  did 
not  expect  has  frightened 
you. 

The  horse  to  which  you  gave 
some  feed  is  not  mine. 

The  pleasure  to  which  you  de- 
vote  yourself  is  dangerous 
to  health. 

t 


022 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


La  chose  a  laquelle  je  pense 
est  fort  iiiteressjinte. 

L'  emplacement  sur  lequel  je 
veux  batir  est  tres-grand. 

Voila  les  raisons  sur  ksiuelles 
je  me  fonde. 


The  thing  of  which  I  am  think- 
mg   is  very  interesting. 

f  he  lot  on  nvhich  I  intend  to 
build  is  very  large. 

These  are  the  reasons  ufion 
which  I  rest. 


Some  authors  of  French  Grammars  will  h^ve  it,  that 
quoiy  with  the  Prepositions  a,  sur^  &c.  may  apply  to  inani' 
mate  objects  ;  for  instance  ;  instead  of  saying,  les  raisons 
sur  ies(/uellesj  &c.  they  maintain  that  one  might  equally 
well  say,  les  raisons  sur  qiioi. 

The  fact  is,  that  polite  custom  is  against  using  quoi  at 
all,  in  such  cases  and  the  like.  There  are  circumstances 
in  which  a  qiioi  and  de  qiioi  are  used,  when  they  allude  to 
things  :  for  example  ;  a  quoi  is  used  when  to  he  is  follow- 
ed by  a  Verb  or  Adjedlivc^  requiring  after  it  the  Preposi- 
tion to^oY  any  other  rendered  in  French  by  a,  before  the 
words  that  which,  zvhich  or  that^  what. 


EXAMPLES. 


C*  est «  quoi  je  m*  applique. 
C  etait  a  quoi  je   ne   pensais 

pas. 
C  etait  a  quoi  elle  1'  exhortait. 

Vous  devriez  payer  vosdettes ; 

c'  est  a  quoi  cependant  vous 

ne  pensez  gviere. 
II  n'  y  a  rien  a  quo'  je  ne  sois 

dispose. 


It  is  to  that  I  apply  myself. 
It  was  that   which    I    did  not 

think  about. 
It  was  what  she  exhorted  him 

to. 
You  should  pay  your  debts  ;  it 

is,  however,  that  which  you 

dont  think  much  of. 
There  is  nothing  which  I  am 

not  disposed  to. 


De  quoi  is  used  when  Stre,  to  be,  is  followed  by  a  Verb 
or  Adje6lhe^  the  correspondent  of  which  requires  quoi  to 
be  acted  upon  by  de. 


EXAMPLES. 


C*  est  de  quoi  je  m'   occupe 

sans  cesse. 
C  est  dc  quoi  je  vous  assure. 
C  est  de  quoi  je^  suis  tres-me- 

content. 


It  is  that  I  am  always  occupy- 
ing myself  adow^ 

It  is  that  I  assure  you  of. 

It  is  tfmt  I  am  very  dissatisfied 
of' 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


323 


De  quoi  signifies  also  something  in  itself  that  may^  &c. 
as  in  the  following  phrase, 


Une  juste   louange  a  de  quoi 
flatter  un  homme  sensible. 


A  just  praise  has  something  in 
itself  that  ?nay  flatter  a  man 
of  feeling. 


De  quoi  signifies  also,  according  to  the  sense,  sufficient 
cy  or  abundance* 

EXAMPLES. 


He  is  a  man  who  has  where- 

with  to  live  upon. 
L%^s.  told  that  this  young  lady 

was  r/cA. 


C*  est  un  homme  qui  a  de  quoi 
vivre. 

On  m'  a  dit  que  cette  demoi- 
selle avait  de  quoi. 

But,  if  rien^  nothing,  be  used  after  Stre^  dont  must  be 
preferred  to  de  quoi, 

EXAMPLES. 


II  n'  y  a  rien  au  monde  dont 
Dieu  ne  soit  1*  auteur. 

II  n*  y  a  rien  dont  ce  coquin  ne 

soit  capable. 
II  n*  y  a  rien  dont  il  se  plaigne 

davantage. 


There  is  nothing  in  the  world 
of  which  God  is  not  the  au- 
thor. 

There  is  nothing  that  this  ras- 
cal is  not  capable  of 

There  is  nothing  that  he  com- 
plains more  of 


RULE  VL 

^oi  may  be  acted  upon,by  other  Prepositions  in  French 
when  it  corresponds  to  the  English  that,  what  or  whichy 
meaning,  in  general,  that  thing,  what  thing* 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  ne  vois  ^2iSsurquoi  ses  pre- 
tentions puissent  etre  fon- 
dees. 

Faites  le  ;  mns  quoi  vous  n'  y 
parviendrez  pas. 

Dites-moi  avec  quoi  vous  pre- 
tendez  en  venir  a  bout. 

Avec  la  prodigalite,  vous  serez 
g6nereux  pendant  six  mois  ; 
apres  quoi,  vous  ne  poui'rez 
plus  r  etre. 


I  dont   see  u/ion  what  his  pre- 
tensions are  grounded. 

Do  it ;    without  that  you  will 

not  succeed  in  it. 
Tell  me  by   w/iat  means   you 

pretend  to  bring  it  about. 
With  prodigality,  you  will  bfr 

generous  for  six  months  ; 

after  which^  you  cannot  be 

so  any  longer. 


324 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  VII. 

Should  zuhom^  that^  or  which  be  understood,  in  English, 
iis  in  the  following  phrases  and  the  like,  they  must,  in 
French,  absolutely  be  expressed. 

EXAMPLES. 


La  demoiselle  que  vous  avez 
rencontree  est  Fran9aise. 

L'  arbre  que  vous  voytz  la-bas 
a  ete  frappe  de  la  foudre. 

La  compagnie  yw*  il  frequente 
n'  est  pas  honnete. 

C  est  a  vous  que  j'  en  veux. 

C*  est  a  lui  que  je  parle  &  non 

pas  a  vous. 
C  est  de  moi  qu'  il  se  plaint. 
C  est  contre  eux  que  j'  ecris. 
Je  connais   la   personne   avec 

qui  vous  causiez. 
L'  homme  de  qui  ou  dont  vous 

avez  le^u  vos  marchandises 

est  parti  pour  France. 


The  young   lady  you  met   is 

French. 
The  tree  you  see  yonder   has 

been  struck  with  lightning. 
The  company  he  keeps  is  not 

honest. 
It   is    against   you  I   have  a 

grudge. 
It  is  to  him  I  am  speaking  and 

not  to  you. 
It  is  of  me  he  complains. 
It  is  against  them  I  write. 
I  know  the  person   you  were 

conversing  with. 
The  man   you  received   your 

goods  from  has  set  off  for 

France. 


Master. 

There  are  some  particular  cases  wherein,  to  prevent 
amphibology^  Itquel^  &c.  is  prefered  to  quiy  even  in  the 
circumstances  expressed  by  Rule  I.  as  in  the  following 
examples  : 


La  fille  de  votre  -ami,  laquelle 
est  infiniment  agreable,  est 
venue  vous  demander. 

C  est  un  effet  de  la  provi- 
dence, lequel  convaincra  les 
incredules. 


The  daughter  of  your  friend, 
ivho  is  infinitely  agreeable, 
is  come  to  demand  you. 

It  is  an  effect  of  Providence, 
which  will  convince  the  in- 
credulous. 


Should  one,  in  the  first  sentence,  put  qui  instead  of  la- 
quelle^  it  would  not  be  determined,  whether  it  be  intended 
to  signifythat  the  friend^  or  his  daughter'^  is  infinitely  agree- 
able ;  and,  in  the  second,  w^ere  it  not  for  kqud^  it  could  not 
be  determined,  whether  it  be  Providence^  or  its  ejffeSl^ 
that  will  convince  the  incredulous* 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


;25 


RULE  VIII. 

When  things  are  spoken  of,  and  followed  by  in  whichy 
in  xuhaty  to  whick^  at  what^  from  which^  through  whichy 
&c.  in  the  sense  of  where^  wherein.,  whereat ;  these,  if  the 
Noun  to  which  they  relate,  metaphorically,  imply  some 
kind  of  motion^  or  resty  may  be  rendered  elegantly,  in 
French,  by  lequel,  m.  s.  laquelk,  f.  s.  lesquek.,  M.  PL. 
lesquelles^  f.  pl.  duquel,  ^c.  par  lequely  i^c.  vers  /e- 
quel^  £sPc.  instead  of  ow,  d^  cru^  par  oh* 

EXAMPLES. 


Voyez  le  mauvais  etat  ok  ou 
dans  lequel  vous  1'  avez  lais- 
see. 

Le  siecleoM  ou  dans  leqitel  nous 
vivons. 

Le  danger  oh  ou  dans  lequel  il 
se  trouve. 

Voilale  but  oii  ou  vers  lequel  il 
tend. 

Je  me  suis  rendu  a  la  maison 
oil  ou  dans  laquelle  elle  de- 
meure. 

Philippe  dit  a  son  fils  Alex- 
andre, en  lui  donnant  Aris- 
tote  pour  precepteur  ;  "  ap- 
prenez,  sous  un  si  bon  mai- 
tre,  a  eviter  les  fautes  ou 
ou  dans  lesquelles  je  suis 
tombe." 

Je  connais  le  principe  d'  ou  ou 
duquel  decoule  votre  sys- 
teme. 

Voila  les  raisons  d'  oic  ou  des- 
quelles  je  conclus. 

Henri  quatre  regardait  la 
bonne  education  de  la  jeu- 
nesse,  com  me  une  chose 
d'  oil  ou  de  laquelle  depend 
la  felicite  des  roignaumes 
Sc  des  peuples. 
Voila  le  chemin  par  oii  ou  par 

lequel  j'  ai  passe. 
Je  sais  les  moyens  par  oii  ou 
par  lesquels  il  parvint  a  ses 
fins. 


See  the  bad  state  in  which  you 
left  her. 

The  age  we  live  in. 

The  danger  in  which  he  finds 

himself. 
That  is  the  end  he  aims  at, 

I  have  repaired  to  the  house 
in  luhich  she  lives. 

Philip  said  to  his  son  Alexan- 
der, in  giving  him  Aristotle 
for  his  preceptor  :  "  learn 
under  so  good  a  master  to 
avoid  the  faults  into  which  I 
have  fallen." 

I  know  the  principles  from 
which  your  system  is  deriv- 
ed. 

These  are  the  reasons  from 
which  I  conclude. 

Henry  the  fourth  looked  upon 
the  good  education  of  youth 
as  a  thing  upon  which  the 
felicity  of  kingdoms  and  na- 
tions depends. 

There    is    the    road    through 

which  I  passed. 
I  know  the  means  by  which  he 

gained  his  point. 


J26  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  EIGHTH. 

OF  THE  ELLIPTICAL  TERMS,  :^D/,  LE^EL,  &c. 
USED  INTERROGATIVELY. 


RULE  I. 

Who^  is  translated,  in  French,  by  qui^  or  qui  esUce  qui, 
in  the  ifamiliar  language  relating  to  persons  only. 


EXAMPLES. 

Qui  OU  qui  est-ce  qui  va  la  ? 
Qui  OU  qui  est-ce  qui  est  venu? 
Qui  OU  qui  est-ce  qui  osera  le 

faire  ? 
Qui  OU  qui  est-ce  qui  en  veut  ? 


Who  goes  there  ? 

Who  is  come  ? 

Who  will  dare  to  do  it4 


Who  wants  some  of  it  ? 
RULE  IL 

Whom^  not  being  acted  upon  by  a  Preposition^  is  ren- 
dered, in  French,  by  qui^  or  qui  est-ce  que  ;  if  by  qui,  the 
Pronoun  must  be  placed  after  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Qui  poursuivez-x'ows    si   vive- 

ment  ? 
Qui  decouvrez-Tyows  la-bas  ? 
Qui  siimez'vous  le  mieux  ? 


Whom  do  you  pursue  so  close- 

ly? 
Whom  do  you  descry  yonder  ? 
Whom  do  you  love  best  ? 


If  it  be  rendered  by  qui  est-ce  que^  the  Pronoun  must, 
on  the  contrary,  precede  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

Qui  est-ce  que  vous  poursuivez  si  vivement  ? 
Qui  est-ce  que  vou^  decouvrez  la-bas  ? 
Qui  est-ce  que  voug  aimez  le  mieux  ? 

RULE  IIL 

When  whom  is  acted  upon  by  a  Preposition  it  is  render- 
ed, in  French,  by  qui,  acted  upon  by  an  appropriate  Prepo- 
sition, and  not  so  well  by  qui  est-ce  que,  acted  upon  by  the 
same  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

De  qui  vous  entretenez-vous  ?   |  Of  nvhom  do  you  converse  ? 
De  qui  tenez-vous  cette  nou-  I  From  whom  have  you  this  piece 
velle  ?  I      of  news  ? 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


327 


A  qui  ecrivez-vous  ? 
Avec  qui  demeure-t-elle  ? 
Sur  qui  comptez-vous  le  plus  ? 

Pour  qui  travaillez-vous  ? 


To  ivhom  do  you  write  ? 
With  nvhom  does  she  live  ? 
Upon  ivhom  do  you  rely  the 

most  ? 
For  ivhom  do  you  work  ? 


RULE  IV. 

Whose,  interrogatively  used,  is  rendered,  in  French, 
by  a  qui, 

EXAMPLES. 


J  qui  est  cette  belle  maison  ? 
A  qui  est  ce  ruban  bleu  ? 
A  qui  est  cette  cle  ? 
A  qui  sont  ces  bas  de  sole  ? 
A    qui    sont    ces   boucles   d' 

acier  ? 
A  qui  sont  ces  jolies  boucles 

d*  oreille  ? 


Whose  fine  house  is  that  ? 
Whose  blue  ribbon  is  this  ? 
Whose  key  is  this  ? 
Whose  silk  stockings  are  these  ? 
Whose  steel  buckles  are  these  ? 


Whose    pretty 
these  ? 


ear-nngs   are 


RULE    V. 

Whichy  relating  to  persons,  or  things,  is  rendered,  in 
French,  by  lequel,  m.  laquelle,  f,  &c. 

EXAMPLES. 


Lequel  de  vos  freres  est  eleve 

de  la  marine  ? 
Laquelle   de    ces   demoiselles 

veut-il  epouser  ? 
Lequel  de  ces  tableaux  me  con- 

seillez-vous  d*  acheter  ? 
Laquelle  de  ces  deux  oranges 

souiiaitez-vous  ? 
De  ces  editions,  a  laquelle  dois- 

je  donner  la  preference  ? 

Des  romans  que  je  vous  ai 
achetes,  lesqu^ls  trouvez- 
Tous  les  plus  amusans  ? 


Which  of  your  brothers  is  a 
midshipman  ? 

Which  of  these  young  ladies 
does  he  wish  to  marry  ? 

Which  of  these  two  pictures 
do  you  advise  me  to  buy  ? 

Which  of  these  two  oranges 
will  you  have  ? 

Of  these  editions,  to  which 
ought  I  to  give  the  prefer- 
ence. 

Of  the  novels  1  bought  for 
you,  ivhich  do  you  think 
the  most  entertaining  ? 


328 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  VI. 

What,  when  applying  to  persons  or  things,  used  znter- 
rogatively  and  followed  by  a  Substantive,  is  translated,  in 
French,  by  queJ,  m.  quelle,  f.  Sec. 

EXAMPLES. 


Quel  capitaine  commandait  ce 

jour  la  ? 
A    quel   homme    pensez-vou3 

avoir  affaire  ? 
De     quel    Monsieur     parlez- 

vous  ? 
De  quels  Messieurs  avez-vous 

re9U  cet  argent  ? 
Quel  profit    vous  en   revient- 

il? 
Quelle     toile     avez-vous     ap- 

port6e  ? 
Quelles  chemises  porte-t-il  ? 

En  quelle  monnaie  vous  a-t-il 

pay6  ? 
A  quel  jeu  jouerons-nous  ? 
Voici   mon  avis;   quel  est  le 

votre  ? 
C   6tait    son  sentiment,   quel 

etait  le  leur  ? 
Voilamon  opinion ;  savez-vous 

quelle  est  la  sienne  ? 


What  captain  commanded  on 

that  day  ? 
What  man  do  you  think  you 

have  to  deal  with  ? 
What  Gentleman  do  you  speak 

of? 
Of  nvhat  Gentlemen  did  you 

receive  that  money  ? 
What   profit   do    you   receive 

by  it? 
What  linen  have  you  brought  ? 

What  sort  of  shirts  does  he 

wear  ? 
In   what   coin    has    he    paid 

you  ? 
What  game  shall  we  play  at  ? 
This  is  my  advice;    ivhat   is 

yours  ? 
It  was  his  sentiment,  what  was 

theirs  ? 
That  is   my  opinion ;  do  you 

know  nvhat  is  his  ? 


RULE  VIL 

What,  signifying  xvhat  thing,  not  acted  upon  by  a 
Preposition,  when  it  is  the  object  of  the  Verb,  is  rendered, 
1st,  by  que,  or  qu"*  est-ce  que  ;  if  que  be  used,  the  Pro- 
noun active  folloxvs  the  Verb,  as  is  generally  done  in  in- 
terrogations. But,  if,  on  the  contrary,  qu*  est-ce  que  be 
preferred,  the  Pronoun  active,  as  in  affirmation,  precedes 
the  Verb. 


EXAMPLES. 

Que  dites-vous,  or  qu'   est-ce  1   What  do  you  say 
que  vous  dites  ? 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


329 


Que  craignez-vous,  ou  gu'  est- 
ce  que  vous  craignez  ? 

Que  cherche-t-elle,  ou  qu'  est- 
ce  qu'  elle  cherclie  ? 


What  do  you  fear  ? 
What  does  she  look  for  ? 


2d,  By  que,  or  qui  est-ce  qui,  when  it  is  the  subject 
of  the  Verb ;  in  using  ^we,  the  Pronoun  active  will  be  neces- 
sary as  in  the  foregoing  examples;  in  \xsm^  qui  esUce  quiy 
no  Pronoun  active  will  be  required ;  the  Pronoun  passive^ 
if  any  be  used,  will,  as  a  matter  of  course,  precede  the 
Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


What  has  happened  ? 
What  happened  to  him  ? 


Qu'  cst-il  arrive,  ou  qu'  est-ce 
qui  est  arrive  ? 

Que  lui  est-il  arrive,  ou  qu*  est- 
ce  qui  lui  est  arrive  ? 

Remark,  that  why,  implying  for  what  reason,  and  at- 
tended by  a  Negative^  may  be  translated  by  que  followed 
by  ne,  instead  oi pourquoi  and  the  Negative  ne  pas» 


EXAMPLES. 


Que  ne  le  -corrige-t-il,  ou  /wur- 
quoi  ne  le  corrige-t-il  pas  ? 

Que  w'  attendez-vous  ? 

Que  n'  est-il  venu  plutot  ? 

Que  n*  est-il  plus  soigneux  de 
ses  affaires  ? 

Que  71*  y  va-t-il  lui-meme  ? 

Que  ne  faites-vous  ce  qu*  on 
vous  dit  ? 


Why  does  he  not  correct  him  ? 

Why  dont  you  wait  ? 

Why  is  he  not  come  sooner  ? 

Why  is  he  not  more  careful  of 

his  business  ? 
Why  does  he  not  go  thither 

himself  ? 
Why  dont  you   do  what  you 

are  told  of  ? 


^le,  in  a  very  few  phrases,  may  be  used  without  the 
Negative. 


EXAMPLES. 


Que  tardez-vous  ? 
Que  differons-nous  ? 


Why  do  you  stay  ? 
Why  do  we  delay  ? 


Remark,  that  it  is  safer,  in  such  cases,  to  use  pourquoi, 
as,  by  this  means,  no  room  for  error  is  left. 


VOL.    II. 


u  u 


330 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  VIII. 

What,  implying  what  thing,  acted  upon  by  a  Preposi- 
tion is  rendered,  in  French,  by  quoiy  with  an  appropriate 
Preposition  before  it.  ^ 

EXAMPLES. 


De  quoi  vous  accuse-t-on  ? 
De  quoi  parle-t-on  ? 
En  quoi  est-elle  coupable  ? 
Sur  quoi  en  etiez-vous  quand 

je  suis  entre  ? 
A  quoi  attribuez-vous  la  faute  ? 


What  do  they  accuse  you  of? 
What  do  they  talk  of? 
In  what  is  she  guilty  ? 
What  were  you  talking  about 

when  I  came  in? 
To  what  do   you  impute   the 

fault  ? 


Observe,  1st,  That,  if  what  be  not  acted  upon  by  a 
Preposition,  its  correspondent  giioi  may  be  so,  in  French, 
owing  to  the  French  Verb  requiring  a  Preposition,  while 
the  English  Verb  does  not. 


EXAMPLES. 


De  quoi  s'  agit-il  ? 

A  quoi  peut-il  s'  attendre  ? 


What  is  the  matter  ? 
What  can  he  expect  ? 


2d,  That  why  is  sometimes  rendered,  in  French,  by 
quoi,  preceded  by  a  Preposition* 


EXAMPLES 
De  quoi  vous  melez-vous  ? 
A  quoi  bon  tant  de  facons  ? 


Why  do    you   concern   your- 
self ? 
Why  so  much  ado  ? 


3d,  How,  generally  rendered,  in  French,  by  comment, 
or  de  quelle  maniere,  is  sometimes  translated  by  quoi, 
preceded  by  a  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 


A  quoi  passez-vous  votre  tems, 

a  la  campagne  ? 
A  quoi   nous  amuserons-nous 


ce  SOU'  r 


How  do  )'ou  spend  your  time 

in  the  country  ? 
Hoiv  shall  we  divert  ourselves 

this  evening  ? 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


331 


INSTRUCTION  THE  NINTH, 


OF  THE  ACTIVE  FROJYOUJVS. 


RULE  I. 


The  Pronouns  active  of  the  first  and  second  persons, 
if  their  Verbs  be  in  different  tenses,  must  be  repeated  he- 
fore  every  Verb  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  are  found* 
Should  the  Verb  be  in  the  same  tense,  the  Pronoun  may 
or  viay  not  be  repeated  (according  to  fancy  or  taste),, 
though  it  is  most  advisa,ble  to  repeat  them. 


EXAMPLES. 


Jff  pense  &  je  penserai  toujours 
la  meme  chpse.  ' 

Vous  V  avez  vue  &c  voua  la  ver- 
rez  encore. 

JVous  pech.ons  a  present,  &  nous 
avons  dessein  d'  aller  a  la 
chasse  cette  apres  midi. 

Je  dis  8c  declare,  ouje  dis  &yV 
declare,  que  cela  est  ainsi. 


/  think  and  shall  always  think 
the  same  thing. 

You  have  seen  her  and  will  see 
her  again. 

We  are  fishing  now,  and  intend 
to  go  shooting  this  after- 
noon. 

/  say  and  declare  that  it  is  so. 


RULE  IL 

The  Pronouns  active  of  the  third  person  are  not  to  be 
repeated  before  Verbs^  when  ^hose  Verbs  are  in  the  same 
tense. 

EXAMPLE. 


La  bonne  grace  ne  gate  rien  ; 
elle  ajoute  a  la  beaute,  releve 
la  modestie,  &  y  donne  du 
lustre. 


Good  grace  spoils  nothii^g ;  it 
adds  to  beauty,  heightens 
modesty,  and  gives  it  a  lus- 
tre. 


Levizac,  who  gave  in  his  grammar  the  above  rule, 
justly  remarks  :  "  Clearness  requires  the  repetition  of 
the   Pronoun,  when  the  second  Verb,  besides  the  Coxif 


552 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


junction  et,  is  preceded  by  a  Preposition,  which,  with  its 
regimen  {complement),  forms  a  long  incidental  phrase,  as, 


//  fond  sur  son  ennemi,  Sc  afires 
V  avoir  sai'si  d"  unt  main  vic- 
torieuse,  il  le  renverse,  com- 
me  le  cruel  aqiiilon  abat  les 
tendres  moisons  qui  dorent 
la  campagne. 


He  rushes  on  his  enemy,  and 
after  having  taken  hold  of 
him  nvith  a  victorious  hand, 
throws  him  down,  as  the 
ruthless  north  wind  crushes 
the  tender  harvests  that  gild 
the  field. 


Should  those  Verbs  be  in  a  different  tense,  one  may 
either  repeat  the  Pronouns,  or  not  ;  yet,  we  advise  to  re* 
peat  them. 

EXAMPLES. 


Elle  est  vertueuse  Sc  elk  le  sera 

toujours. 
II  n'  a  jamais  rien  valu  8c  ne 

vaudra  jamais  rien. 


She  is  virtuous  and  will  always 

be  so. 
He  never   was  good  for  any 

thing  nor  ever  will  be. 


On  must  always  be  repeated. 


EXAMPLES. 


On  parle  d'  une  maniere  Sc  /'  on 
agit  souvent  d'  une  autre. 

On  dit,  on  ecrit,  &  /'  on  assure, 
que  la  paix  sera  bientot  sig- 
nee. 

On  epie  la  fortune,  on  travaille, 
on  se  fatigue,  on  cherche 
tous  les  moyens  de  la  fixer  ; 
Sc,  apres  bien  des  soins,  le 
tombeau  s'  ouvre,  Sc  /'  on  s' 
aper^oit  trop  tard  que  tout 
ici  bas  n'  est  que  vanite. 


They  speak  in  one  way  and  of- 
ten act  in  another. 

Theij  say,  write,  and  assure, that 
peace  will  soon  be  signed. 

We  watch  fortune,  we  labour, 
ive  exhaust  ourselves,  we  try 
all  means  to  fix  her ;  and, 
after  much  anxiety,  the  grave 
opens,  and  when  too  late,  it 
is  discovered  that  all  here 
below  is  only  vanity. 


RULE  in. 

A&ive  Pronouns,  of  whatever  persons  they  be,  ought  to 
be  repeated  before  the  Verbs  to  which  they  relate. 

1st,  When  we  pass  from  negation  to  affirmation,  or  fron^ 
affrmation  to  negation* 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


833 


2d,  When  the  Verbs  are  connected  by  a  Conjun6lion* 
EXAMPLES. 


Vous  voulez  8c  vgus  ne  voulez 

pas  tour  a  tour. 
//  ne  parle  pas  quand  il  le  faut, 

&  //  parle  quand  il  ne  le  faut 

pas. 
Elle  n'  est  pas  riche,  mais  elle 

est  jeune  &  belle. 
Kous  le  recevons  chez  nous, 

cependant  nous  ne  pouvons 

pas  le  souffrir. 


You  will  and  will  not  by  turns. 

He  does  not  speak  when  it  is 

necessary,  and  speaks  when 

he  should  not. 
She  is  not  rich,  but*^e  is  young 

and  handsome. 
We  receive  him  in  our  house, 

yet  nve  cannot  bear  him. 


Et  and  iii  (when  the  Verb 
an  exception  among  the  Conj 
the  suppression  of  the  adlive 
wKizh.  follow. 


is  not  used  negatively)  are 
unctions  ;  for  they  require 
Pronouns  before  the  Verbs 


EXAMPLES. 


Vous  aimez  les  complimens  8c 

les  entendez  toujours   avec 

plaisir. 
//donne  &  depense  tout  son 

argent. 
Je  ne  bois  ni  ne  mange. 
//  n'  invite  ni  ne  revolt  person- 

ne  chez  lui. 


You  love  compliments  and  al- 
ways hear  thenj  with  plea- 
sure. 

He  gives  and  spends  all  his 
money. 

/  neither  drink  nor  eat. 

//e  neither  invites  nor  receives 
any  body  at  his  house. 


RULE  IV. 

The  aSlive  Pronouns  occurring  without  a  mark  of  In- 
terrogation, are  in  the  three  following  cases,  placed  after 
the  Verb. 

Ist^  They  are  placed  after  the  seven  following  Verbs, 
when  they  are  joined  with  them  only  by  way  of  pare  fit  he- 
sis  ;  viz :  dire^  repondre^  repliquer^  repartir^  continuer^ 
poursiavre,  «'  eerier, 

EXAMPLES. 


\  ous  voyez,  dit-il,  V  etat  af- 
freux  ou  je  suis  reduit. 

Pourquoi,lui  re/iondis-jey  neme 
r  avez-vous  pas  dit  plutot  ? 

Je  ne  pouvais  vous  1'  apprendre 
aiiparavant,  lui  re/iliquai-je. 


You  see,  said  he^  the  frightful 
condition  I  am  reduced  to. 

Why,  answered  I  to  him,  have 
you  not  told  it  me  sooner  ? 

I  could  not  inform  you  of  it 
before,  replied  I  to  him. 


334 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Cependant,  Im  re/iartis-je  brus- 
quement,  vous  m'  avez  vu 
plusieurs  fois. 

Oh  !  continua-t-ilt  je  n'  ai  ja- 
mais os6  le  faire. 

II  fallait,  poursuivis-je^  avec 
chaleur,avoir  plus  de  courage 
avecle  meilleurde  vos  amis. 

Ah  !  s'  ccria-t-il^  avec  1*  accent 
de  lapKisvivereconnaisance, 
vous  m'  avez  rendu  trop  de 
services,  pourqvie  j'  osasse 
vous  en  demander  un  nou- 
veau. 


However,  retorted  /,  you  have 
seen  me  many  times. 

Oh !  continued  he^  I  never 
dared  to  do  it. 

You  should,  pursued  7,  with 
warmth,  have  more  courage 
with  the  best  of  your  friends. 

Ah !  exclaimed  he^  with  ex- 
pressions of  the  liveliest 
gratitude,  you  have  rendered 
me  too  many  services,  for 
me  to  presume  to  ask  a  new 
one. 


2d,  Principally  after  such  expressions,  as  dusse-je^ 
dut'il^hc,  fussi'je^  fussieZ'Vous^  &c.  puisse-t-il^  puissieZ' 
vous,  &c.  in  the  Subjunctive, 


Je   r   entreprendrai, 
echouer. 

II  partira  cette  nuit,  dut-il  ^tre 
assassine. 

X>ussiez-vous  m*  en  vouloir,  je 
vous  dirai  ma  fa9on  de  pen- 
ser.  • 

Fusse-je  le  seul  de  cette  opin- 
ion, cela  ne  m'  empechera 
pas  de  la  manifester. 

Fussiez-vous  plus  nombreux, 
vous  eprouverez  de  la  resis- 
tance. 

Puisse-t-il  se  guerir  de  sa  ma- 
ladie  Sc  vivre  encore  long- 
tems  pour  votre  bonheur  ! 


EXAMPLES. 

dusse-je 


I  will  undertake  it,  though  I 
should  miscarry. 

He  will  set  off  to  night,  though 
he  should  be  murdered. 

Though  you  should  bear  me  a 
spleen,  I  will  tell  you  my 
way  of  thinking. 

Though  I  ivere  the  only  one  of 
that  opinion,  it  will  not  pre- 
vent me  from  manifesting  it. 

Though  you  nvere  more  nume- 
rous, you  will  experience 
resistance. 

May  he  be  cured  of  his  illness 
and  yet  live  long  for  your 
happiness  ! 


Remark,  that  if  the  subject  were  not  an  aSlhe  Pronoun, 
it  should  also  be  placed  after  the  Verb,  as  in  the  two  cases 
above. 

EXAMPLES. 


Rien  n'  est  plus  commun  que 
de  prendre  un  engouement 
passager  pour  de  1'  amitie. 
II  faut,  {dit  Plutarque)  avoir 
mange  un  minot  de  sel  avec 
celui  qu'  on  veut  aimer. 


Nothing  is  more  common  than 
to  take  a  momentary  infatu- 
ation for  friendship. — We 
must  {says  Plutarch)  have 
eaten  three  bushels  of  salt 
with  him  we  wish  to  love, 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


155 


Puissent  tons  les  vrais  citoyens 
se  reunir  contre  les  mal-in- 
tentionnes! 


May  all  true  citizens  be  united 
against  evil-minded  people  \ 


3d,  When  the  Verb  is  preceded  by  any  of  the  follow- 
ing Conjunctive  words  aussi^  peut-etre,  autant,  du  moms, 
au  moins,  en  vain,  encore,  a  peine. 


EXAMPLES. 


La  rose  est  la  reine  des  fleurs  ; 

aussi  Qst-elle  V  embleme  de 

la  beaule. 
II  lui   a  manque   essentielle- 

ment  ;  aussi    est-z7   tres-fa- 

che. 
Si  vous  allez  chez  lui    a  pre- 
sent, peut-etre  le  trouverez- 

-oous  occupe. 
Autant  vaudrait-?/,  une  bonne 

fois,  lui  dire  ce  qu'  il  en  est. 

On  le  soup^onnait  d'  etre  le 
chef  de  la  conspiration,  du 
moins  Gst-il  certain  qu'  il 
etait  instruit  du  complot. 

En  cela,  an  moins  ou  du  moins 
diwiQZ'Vous  raison. 

En  vain  Iuip6rta-t-z7sesplain- 
tes  ;  tout  cela  ne  lui  servit  a 
rien. 

II  a  ete  long-tems  a  se  faire 
prier,  encore  ne  1'  a-t-f/  ac- 
corde  que  de  mauvaise 
grace. 

A  peine  Cesar  fut-z7  entr6  au 
Senat,  que  les  conjures  se 
jeterent  sur  lui  &  le  poign- 
arderent. 


The  rose  is  the  queen  of  floAV- 
ers  ;  therefore  it  is  the  em- 
blem of  beauty. 

He  affronted  him  grossly  ; 
therefore  he  is  very  angry. 

If  you  go  to  his  house  now, 
perhaps  you  will  find  him  en- 
gaged. 

/if  would  be  as  nvell,  once  for 
all,  to  tell  him  how  the  mat- 
ter stands. 

They  suspected  him  to  be  the 
head  of  the  conspiracy,  at 
least  it  is  certain  he  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  plot. 

In  that,  at  k as t,  you  were  yevy 
right. 

In  vain  did  he  lay  his  com- 
plaints before  him  ;  all  that 
was  of  no  service  to  him. 

He  has  been  a  long  time  en- 
treated, yet  he  granted  it 
with  a  bad  grace. 

Scarce  Cxsar  had  entered  the 
Senate,  when  the  conspira- 
tors rushed  on  and  stabbed 
him. 


Remark,  that  in  some  of  the  above  examples  the  Eng- 
lish construction  might  have  been  safely  followed,  but  at 
much  expense  of  the  grace  aud  energy  of  the  sentence. 


536 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY^ 


RULE  V. 


The  active  Pronouns  which  are  considered  useless,  in 
English,  in  an  Interrogation^  in  which  a  Noun  is  the  sub- 
jedl  of  the  Verkf  must,  in  French,  always  be  expressed. 


EXAMPLES. 


V^otre  maitre  est-z7  au  logis  ? 
Mes  souliers  sont-z'/sdecrottes  ? 
Mesbas  sont-z7s  raccommodes  ? 
Votre  montre  va-t-^/Ze  bien? 
Votre  soeur  dessine-t-e//e  bien  ? 
Ces    demoiselles   ont-elles  un 

maitre  de  musique  ? 
Le  tailleur  a-t-//  apporte  men 

habit  neuf  ? 
Votre  marchande  de  modes  a- 
t-eile  regu  les  nouvelles  modes  ? 
Votre  frere  n'  est-z7  pas  arrive 

des  Indes  ? 


Is  your  master  at  home  ? 

Are  my  shoes  cleaned  ? 

Are  my  stockings  mended  ? 

Does  your  watch  go  well  ? 

Does  your  sister  draw  well? 

Have  these  young  ladies  a  mu- 
sic-master ? 

Has  the  tailor  brought  my  new 
coat  ? 

Has  your  milliner  received  the 
new  fashions  ? 

Is  not  your  brother  arrived 
from  the  Indies  ? 


RULE  VI. 


If  the  Verb  used  interrogatively  were  in  the  Jirst  per- 
son, and  ended  in  ^,  feeble,  this  e  should  be  made  open^ 
by  placing  over  it  an  accent  aciitey  owing  to  the  weak  syl- 
lable je  that  follows  it. 


EXAMPLE. 


Reve-je  ?  Pens<?-je  ?  Dusse-je  ? 


Do   I  dream? 
Should  I  ? 


Do  I   think? 


Should  the  Verb  in  the  Jirst  person  be  a  monosyllable^ 
terminated  by  two  consonants^  the  Pronoun ^^  cannot  yb/- 
low  it  ;  thus  you  will  avoid  saying,  dois-je  ?  mens-je  P 
sers-je  ?  Instead  of  it,  you  will  place,  to  ask  the  question, 
est-ce  qu^  before  the  Verb  preceded  hy  je  and  say  : 


JS.8t-ce  que  je  sors  ?  Est-ce  que 
je  mens  ?  Est-ce  que  je  sers  ? 


Do  I  sleep  ?    Do  I  lie  ?   Do  I 


serve 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


137 


Observe,  that  est-ce  que^  which  is  a  very  familiar  mode 
of  expression  among  the  French,  is  applicable,  in  the 
same  manner,  to  other  persons  and  temes  of  the  Verb. 


EXAMPLES. 


Est-ce  que  vous  ecrivez  ?  Est- 
ce  que  vous  n'  ecrivez  pas  ? 

Est-ce  qiC  ii  est  venu  ?  Est-ce 
qu'  il  n'  est  pas  venu  ? 

Est-ce  que  votre  frere  obtiendra 
permission  ? 


Do     you    Avrite  ?     Dont  you 

write  ? 
Is  he  come  ?  Is  he  not  come  ? 


Will     your 
leave  ? 


brother     obtain 


INSTRUCTION  THE  TENTH. 
OF  THE  PASSIVE  PRONOUNS. 


RULE  L 

PassheVroT\o\xns^  in  French,  1st,  immediately  precede 
the  Verb.  2d,  They  must  be  repeated  before  every 
Verb,  in  the  sentence  to  which  they  belong. 


EXAMPLES, 


st, 


II  m'  a  dit  cela — Je  ne  -vous  ai 
jamais  dit  cela. 

Je  vous  apporte  des  fruits  murs 
— II  nous  ennuie  beaucoup— 
Je  lui  parlerai  en  particu- 
lier — Je  leur  ferai  entendre 
raison. 

2d, 

Je  vous  aime  &  vous  estime — 
L'  idee  de  ses  malheurs  le 
poursuit,  le  tourmente  &c  /' 
accable — Un  fils  bien  eleve 
ne  s'  arme  jamais  con t re 
sonpere  ;  il/'  aime,  /'honore, 
Sc  /crespecte — On  nous  veille 
&  on  nous  observe. 


1st, 


He  told  me  that — I  never  told 
ijQu  that. 

I  bring  you  ripe  fruits — He 
tires  us  much — I  will  speak 
to  him  in  private — I  shall 
make  them  listen  to  reason. 

2d, 
I  love  and  esteem  you — The 
idea  of  his  misfortunes  pur- 
sues, torments,  and  over- 
whelms hiin — A  son  well 
educated  never  rebels  against 
hisfadier ;  he  loves,honours, 
and  respects  him — They 
watch  and  observe  us. 


N.  B.  To  the  above  rule.  Verbs  in  tbe  Imperative  afford 
an  exception  ;  for  which,  see  Rule  IV. 

VOL.  II.  XX 


358 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  II. 


If  a  Ferb  be  attended  by  two  passive  Pronouns,  they 
must  both  precede  the  Verb  ;  and  the  one  affected  by  the 
Preposition  a  (understood)  corresponding  to  to  expressed 
{j)r  understood)  in  English,  should  precede. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  me  r  a  promis — Je  vous  la 
montrerai.! — Elle  nous  les 
renverra — Je  crois  qu'  elle 
ne  -vous  les  renverra  pas. 


He  promised  it  to  me — I  will 
shew  her  or  it  to  you — She 
will  send  them  back  to  us — • 
I  believe  she  will  not  send 
them  back  to  you. 


RULE  IIL 

Should  the  two  Pronouns  belong  both  to  the  third  per- 
son, the  contrary  of  what  is  required  by  the  preceding 
rule,  takes  place  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  Pronoun  before  which 
the  Preposition  a  is  understood,  should  follow  the  one 
unattended  by  it. 

EXAMPLES. 


Nous  le  lui  dirons— Vous  les 
leur  avez  promis — Je  vous 
assure  que  je  ne  les  leur  ai 
pas  promis — Je  la  lui  pre- 
senterai — Elle  ne  veut  pas 
que  vous  la  lui  presentiez. 


We  will  tell  it  to  him — You 
have  promised  them  to  them 
— I  assure  you  that  I  have 
not  promised  them  to  them 
— I  will  introduce  her  to 
him  or  to  her — She  will  not 
have  you  to  introduce  her 
to  him  or  to  her. 


RULE  IV. 


When  either  of  the  Pronouns  k^  la^  les^  attended  by  thef 
Pronouns  disjunctive  wo/,  i^/,725z/5,?^ (??/*, /w/,  or /ewr,  become 
the  object  of  the  Imperative  unaccompanied  with  a  nega^^ 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  339 

the,  ie,  h,  les  should  always  respectivelj^^  precede  the  Pro- 
nouns disjunctive  and  all  of  them  be  put  after  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Donnez-/e  moi — Envoyez-/<2  lui 
— Pretez-/t « leur — Apporte  z- 
Us  nous — Assurez-/es  vous. 


Give  him  or  it  to  me — Send 
her  or  it  to  him  or  to  her— 
Send  thera  to  them — Bring 
them  to  us — Make  sure  of 

them* 


It  is  to  be  noticed,  that  moi  and  toiy  become  me  and  te^ 
when  they  are  linked  with  en. 


EXAMPLE. 

en— Donne 
de  garde. 


Cherchez-m'  en— Donne-/'  en  ]  Hunt    some  for  we— Beware 

I      of  it. 


RULE  V. 

When  two  Imperatives,  without  a  negative,  accompa- 
nied by  Pronouns,  follow  one  another,  we  place  xh^Jirst 
Pronoun  after  the^mt  Verb,  and  the  ^ecowflf  Pronoun  be- 
fore the  second  V^rb, 

EXAMPLES. 


Cherchez-/e  &  ltd  dites  que  je 

r  attends. 
Levtz-vow«  8c  vous  appretez  a 

sortir. 
Pretcz-Ie  moi  ou  me  le  vendez. 


Look  for  him  and  tell  hi?n  I  am 

waiting  for  him. 
Rise  and  make  ready  to  go  out. 


Lend  or  sell  it  to  me, 

RULE  VL 

Should  the  Imperative  be  attended  with  a  negative, the 
Pronouns  then  occupy  their  natural  place  before  the  Verb, 
in  the  same  order  as  they  do  in  the  other  tenses  of  the 
Verb,  and  moi^  toi,  become  fne-,  te, 

EXAMPLES. 

Ne  me   trompez   pas — Ne   te  \  Dont  deceive  mc — Dont  flatter 

flatte  pas  ainsi.  I       thyself  xhws, 

Ne  me  le  renvoyez  pas  encore,  j  Dont  send  it  back  to  me  yet. 


340 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Ne  me  la  refusez  pas,  je  vous 

en  conjure. 
Ne  nous  le   dites   pas — Ne  la 

lui  garde z  pas. 
Ne  les  leur  accordez  pas. 


Dont  refuse  it  to  me^  I  entreat 

you. 
Dont  tell  it  to  us — Dont  keep 

it  for  him  or  her. 
Dont  grant  them  to  them. 


RULE  VII. 

The  elliptical  terms  y  and  en  precede  immediately  the 
Verb. 

EXAMPLES  FOR   F. 


y  travaille  depuis  le  matin 
jusqu'  au  soir — N'  y  tra- 
vaillez  plus — Je  vous  y  me- 
nerai,  si  vous  voulez — Non, 
ne  m'  y  menez  pas — 'Y  est- 
il  a  cette  heure  ? — F  reste- 
xez-vous  long-tems  ? 


I  work  at  it  from  morning  till 
evening — Work  at  it  no 
more — I  will  take  you  there 
if  you  chuse — No,  dont  take 
me  there — Is  he  there  at 
this  time  ? — Shall  you  stay 
in  it  long  ? 


EXAMPLES  FOR  EJV. 


Qu'  en  dites-vous  maintenant  ? 
Il  ne  s'  en  repent  point — II 
avait-deux  fils  ;  il  lui  en  est 
mort  un — Combien  e7i  vou- 
lez-vous  ? — J'  en  veux  seule- 
ment  trois  douzaines — Ne 
m'  en  apportez  plus — Je  ne 
leur  en  demancle  pas^ — En 
venez-vous  ?  — ^Oui,  j'  en 
viens. 


What  do  you  say  to  it  now  ? — . 
He  does  not  repent  of  it — 
He  had  two  sons,  one  of 
them  died — How  many  do' 
you  want  of  them  ? — Three 
dozens  only — Dont  bring  me 
any  more  of  them — -I  dont 
ask  any  of  them-—Do  you 
come  from  hence  ? — Yes  I 
do. 


Observe,  that  when  y  and  en  meet  in  the  same  phrase, 
the  former  is  alv^rays  put  jirst. 

EXAMPLES. 


N'  t/    en   a-t-il   pas  suffisam- 

ment  ? 
Vous  n'  y  en  avez   pas   trop 

mis. 
Y  en  a-t-il  qui  le  sachent  ? 
Je  vous  y  en  ferai  tenir. 

II  vous  y  en  portera  davantage, 
si  nog,s  le  souhaitons. 


Is  there  not  plenty  of  it  ? 

You  did  not  put  too  much  of  it 

in  it. 
Is  there  any  one  that  knows  it  l 
I    will    forward    some    to  you 

there. 
He  will  bring  us  some  more 

thither^  if  we  desire  it. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  341 

Remark,  that  in  the  Imperative,  without  a  negative,  y  or 
en  follow  the  Verb  ;  and  if  they  meet  with  a  Pronoun,,  they 
are  put  after  it. 

EXAMPLES  FOR   r. 


Allez-y — Menez-nous  y — Con- 
duisez-les  y — Rendez-vous 
y — Fiez-vous  y. 


Go  thither — Take  us  thither-"^ 
Conduct  them  thither — Re- 
pair thither — Trust  to  him 
OY  to  it. 


We  dont  say,  however,  as  it  would  be  too  harsh,  me- 
nez-moi  y,  envoy ez-moi  y  ;  but  by  placing  y  before,  menez- 
y  moty  envoyez-y  vioi. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  EM 


Donnez-lui  en — Envoyez-nous 
en — Gardez-vous  en  bien. 


Give  him  some — Send  us  some 
— Beware  of  it. 


We  do  not  say  however  for  the  same  reason  as  with  re- 
gard to  y^  donneZ'tnoi  en,  envoy ez-moi  en,  apportez-moi  en  ; 
but  donneZ'ra'  en,  envoyeZ'trC  en,  apportez-m!  en,  as  has 
already  been  noticed. 


542 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


O    cS    r- 
^     M    ^  -^ 
5«    "^  Ph    ^    «? 


<l> 


CO 


03 

3 


<u 

CO 


CO  ^  T3 
Pi  C!  •*«* 

Oh   G      ^ 

:3  <"   a 

CO   ^      § 

-M    bo  . 

^  ^  t  ^ 


>^  ^ 


^      CO 


^  S    ^  K 

w  cJ    ^  S 

(U  '-v  d  c> 

yj  03           5-1  •*-» 

<^  .-^       ^  -Wi 


o  ^ 


Ch^ 


Pi  u 


fl  o 


•  ^    n 


S   o    u    = 


,_  O 

'r^  O 

,„    .      ^  CO      - 

<^  ."S     ^     r^  ^j     (U 

«u  ?^  tf  o  ^ 


bo 


-, 

cS 

^ 

0 

c< 

•     4-> 

^    vW 

fi    "^ 

a> 

tji    C3 

v«     S 

«-• 

/>..  T3                 CO 

.  ^ 

^  «  '^«;  S, 

to    Ph 

2-.^  ":0     S     ^, 

onnera. 
nverra. 
nerai-je  ? 
errai-je  ? 

*  donne  pas 

*  enverra  p 
donne  rai-je 

*  enverrai-je 
promet;  il  s' 
procura;  il 
**  prometto 
ne  **  donne 
1  ver  rai-je  ? 

xJ  <u  c:  >  *   *   ^ 

11*   *   ^^>^^11^^* 

a     .  c  ^  c 

"^        A        a   ^ 
en    C    *^    flj    .     .. 

g    !>.  (3    !>    CO    CO    CO 

fi    fl  "ij  w    fi    c    > 

VOU 

s'  e 
s'y 
lui. 
leur 
leui 

«      ^   co^ 

"^      t^    S         r.     ^      ^      -Ji 

^^  ^^^S 

<U  ~    -^   >-  =   5   ^ 
c  c  D  «     2  °  0 

S  "7!          CO    CO    CO 
^    ^  I0  ^  ii  ii 

>^ 

tA 

t»~.               »>      ^    CO       ^ 

CO          ^                >-» 

^  CO          ^SS^ 

w         ►^^        sT  t. 

d       V         r>     »5        _,        ^    ^^ 

"^      ^   CO  .^   ;3    3 

'^  '-*    OS    a;    ^    "^    CO 

tn  a   0   :2   <u   Hi 

a>   a>  ^^  "^   ?   2   '^ 

3     ""^     ■— '     I^     1— H    1-i! 

S  Siiii  S  §  ^ 

^  s^  ^^^^ 

-  >^  - 

>^             ^>^ 

^  !^  ^  ^S  :ii  ii 

"                -     ^  s-    t. 

'—        >>.-r  p  p 

^  :U     2J    -        CO     to     CO 

g    <u  ;^  -2  -^  ^ 

^^  ^^  -^  -^  3  :3  p 

JJ  Ji  <u  u  0  0  0 

0  '^    aj   oj   aj   1) 

>  C/:  C/i  H^h-U 

^.SHh;z;:;2;> 

Uf: 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


34S 


INSTRUCTION  THE  ELEVENTH, 

OF  THE  DISJVKCTIVE  PROJVOUJSTS. 


RULE  I. 

The  disjunctive  Pronouns  moi^  toiy  luiy  &c.  are  used  in 
the  following  circumstances. 

1st,  Before  the  words  qui,  que^  or  seul 

EXAMPLES. 

Moi  qui  vous  parle,  je  1'  ai  vu 


Lui  seul  etait  present.      EUe 

seule  r  a  fait. 
Tot  que  j'    aime  &  que  je  re- 

specte. 


/  wAo  speak  to  you,  have   seen 

him  or  it. 
He    alone    was  present.     She 

alone  has  done  it. 
Thou  whom  I  love  and  respect. 


2d,  After  etre  used  affirmatively  or  interrogatively, 
EXAMPLES. 


Vous  voulez  absolument  que 

ce  soit  elle  ou  nous. 
C  est  lui  qui  le  dit  &  non  pas 

moi. 
Non  ;  je  vous  assure  que   ce 

w*  est  pas  lui  ;   qui  done  ? 
C  est  ou  elle  ou  vous  ou  eux, 
Est-ce  toi  ou  moi  ?  parle. 


You  will  have  it  absolutely  that 

it  should  be  he  or  nve. 
It  is  he  nvho  says  so  and  not  I. 

No  ;  I  assure  you   that   it  is 

not  he  \  who  then  ? 
It  is  either  she^  you  or  they. 
Is  it  thou  or  /  ?  speak. 


3d,  Before  a  Noun^  or  a  Verb  used  in  opposition^  or 
distinction  to  the  first,  and  to  enumerate  the  various  parts 
different  persons  had  in  a  transaction* 


Vous  aimez  la  peche,  &  moi  la 

chasse. 
Vous  preferez    1'     etude,    lui 

le  jeu,  &  elle  la  danse. 


EXAMPLES. 

You  love  fishing,  and  /  hunt- 
ing. 

You  prefer  study,  he  gaming> 
and  she  dancing. 


344 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Lespassans  Sclechirurgien  ont 
secouru  le  blesse  ;  eujc  V 
ont  releve  £c  lui  V  a  panse. 


The  by-passers  and  the  sur- 
geon assisted  the  wounded 
man ;  they  raised  him  and 
he  dressed  him. 


Observe,  that  before  je^  tu^  nous^  vous^  il,  &c.  the 
corresponding  Pronouns  wzo/,  toi,  ?ious,  vous,  lui^  &c.  may 
be  used  in  cases  in  which  it  is  wished  to  give  the  sentence 
great  energy  and  precision  ;  and  in  these,  taste,  circum- 
stances, and  good  writers,  are  the  best  guides. 


EXAMPLES. 


Nous  avons  1*  un  8c  1'  autre  des 
motifs  puissans  de  1'  obli- 
ge r  ;  moi^  je  lui  dois  de  la 
reconnaissance  pour  des  bi- 
enfaits  recus,  Sc  vous^  vous 
esperez  en  recevoh*. 

Toij  tu  oserais  le  faire  !  Je  n' 
en  crois  rien. 

JVous^  nous  pensons  ainsi ;  mais 
/wz,  il  pense  tout  autrement. 


We  have  both  powerful  mo- 
tives to  oblige  him  ;  /  owe 
him  gratitude  for  benefits 
received,  and  you  hope  to  re- 
ceive some  from  him. 

Thou  would st  dare  to  do  it  I  I 
believe  nothing  of  it. 

We  think  so,  but  he  thinks 
quite  differently. 


4th,  When  they  are  united  to  Nouns  or  Pronouns  by  a 
Conjundlion. 

EXAMPLES. 


Mon  domestique  &  moi^  nous 
nous  y  rendrons  sur  le 
champ. 

Ma  soeur  &  moz,  nous  y  etions. 


My  domestic  and  /shall  repair 
thither  immediately. 

My  sister  and  /  were  there. 


5th,  After  a  Preposition,  as  has  already  been  noticed 
in  the  first  part  of  this  volume,  see  page  59. 


RULE  IL 


When  a  Verb  relates  to  subjects  of  different  persons, 
the  Pronouns  siibjeSl  are  disjwiSiivc,  and  the  Verb  agrees 
with  the  j^rs?  person  in  preference  to   the   second  ^  and 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


347 


with  the  second^  in  preference  to  the  third.  The  active 
Pronouns  must  attend  the  Verb^  though  they  be  omitted 
in  English,  and  we,  through  politeness,  first  name  the  per- 
son to  or  of  whom  we  are  speaking,  while  we  always 
name  ourselves  last. 

EXAI.IPLES. 


Vous    &   moi    nous   sommes 

bons  amis. 
Lui,  votre  frere,  Sc  moi,  nous 

lision  s   ensemble  la  no  uve  lie 

brochure. 
E!le  8c  moi,  nous  sortimes  pour 

aller  nous  promener. 
Vous,  votre  ami,  £:  son  cousin, 

vous  viendrez  me  trouver. 


You  and  I  are  good  friends. 

He,  your  brother,  and  I  were 

reading   together  the   new 

pamphlet. 
She  and  I  went  out  to  take  a 

walk. 
You,  your  friend,  and  his  cousin 

will  call  upon  me. 


It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  when  superiors,  such  as  a 
father  or  a  master,  mention  what  they  have  done  in  con- 
junction with  a  child  or  a  servant,  the  Pronoun  of  the 
first  person  is  mentioned  first^  which  forms  an  exception 
to  the  above  rule  ;  so  we  may  say  : 


Mot  8c  mon  fils. 

Moi  8c  mon  domestique. 


/  and  my  son. 
/  and  my  servant. 


It  is  essential  to  observe,  that,  if  the  subjects  relating  to 
the  Verb^  are  all  of  the  third  person^  the  Firr^,  then,  is  not, 
as  in  the  above  cases,  preceded  by  a  Pronoun  active. 

EXAMPLES. 


Lui  Sc  eux  ne  partiront  point, 
j'  en  suis  sur. 

Lui  Sc  ce  monsieiLr  que  vous 
voyez  la-bas  sont  associes. 

Lui  8c  son  frere  apprennent  le 
Francais,  V  Aliemand,  la 
danse,  1'  escrime,  le  dessin, 
la  tenue  des  livres,  8c  les 
mathematiques. 


He  and  they  will  not  set  off,  I 
am  sure. 

He  and  that  gentleman  you  see 
yonder  are  partners. 

He  and  his  brother  are  learn- 
ing French,  German,  dan- 
cing, fencing,  drawing,  book- 
keeping, and  mathematics. 


VOL.  II. 


Yy 


348 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  TWELFTH. 

OF  THE  USE  OF  THE  PRONOUNS  LUI,  EUX,  ELLEy 
ELLES,  SE,  LUI-MEME,  SOL 


RULE   I. 

The  personal  Pronouns  leur  and  /wi,  eux^  elle^  elles^  act- 
ed upon  by  a  Preposition^  canwo^,  in  general,  be  used  for 
ajiimals  or  things^  but,  when  both  the  Pronoun  and  Pre- 
position, cannot  be  rendered  by  any  of  the  Adverbs  and 
Prepositions  en,  2/,  dessusy  dedans^  aupres. 


EXAMPLES. 


La  fortune  de  son  frere  va  bi- 

entot  augmenter  la  sienne  ; 

il  ne  devait  pas  y   compter 

sitot,  (and  not)  II  ne  devait 

pas  compter  sitot  sur  elle. 
En  traversant  le  desert,  j'  en 

avais  grand'  peiir,  (and  not) 

j'  avais  grand'  peur  d'  eux, 
y  en  ai  ete  content,  (and  not) 

j'  ai  ete  content  de  lui, 
Je  m*  en  approchai,  (and  not) 

je  m'  approchai  d'  elle, 
Je  m'  y  suis  assis  ou  je  mesuis 

assis  dessiis,  (and  not)  je  me 

suis  assis  sur  elle, 
y  y  HI  compte  ou  'y  ai  compte 

dessus^^'dud  not)j'  aicompt6 

sur  lui. 
11  faut  y  opposer  de    la  resis- 
«      tance,  (and  not)  il  faut  leu?- 

opposer,  &CC. 
J*  y  donne  mon  consentement, 

(and  net)  jc  lui  donne,  he, 
^lon  bonheur  en  depend,  (and 

not)  depend  de  luL 


The  fortune  of  his  brother  will 
directly  hicrease  his  own ;  he 
should  not  have  counted  on 
it  so  soon. 

In  crossing  the  desert,  I  was 
very  much  afraid  of  them-^ 
(tygers). 

I  have  been  pleased  with  it — 
(a  poem). 

I  came  near  it, — (a  table). 

I  sat  upon  it — (a  chair). 


I  relied  2</io;2  it — (fair  weather). 


We  must  oppose  resistance  to 
them — (beasts). 

I  give  my   consent  to  it — (a 

proposition). 
My  happiness  depends  upon  it        | 


— (a  law  suit). 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


349 


Ne  vous  y  fiez  pas,  (and  not) 

ne  vous  fiez  pas  a  lui. 
Servez-vous  en,  (and  not)  ser- 

vez-vous  de  lui, 
Ne  crachez   pas  dessus,   (and 

not)  ne  crachez  pas  sur  hd, 
Ne  montez   pas    dessus^  (and 

not)  ne  montez  pas  sur  luL 
Je   ne  m'   en   suis  pas  encore 

servi  (and  not)  je  ne  me  suis 

pas  encore  servi  de  lui. 
Nous  allames  camper  aufires, 

(and  not)  pres  d'  elle, 
Vous  pouvez   etre  sur   que  1' 

oiseau  n'  y  est  plus  ou  n*  est 

plus  dedans,  (and  not)  dans 

elle. 
Voyez-vous  cette  maison  ?    II 

demeure  vis-a-vis,  (and  not) 

vis-a-vis  d'  elle* 


Dont trustee  2V-*-(a  bad  bridge). 

Make  use  of  it — (a  stick). 

Dont  spit  ufion  it-— {9.  carpet). 

Dont  get  on  him — (a  horse). 

I  have  not  yet  made  use  of  him 
— (a  horse). 

We  went  to  encamp  near  them 

— (the  army). 
You  may  be  sure  that  the  bird 

is   no    longer     in    it — (the 

cage). 

Do  you  see  that  house  ?  He 
lives  over  against  it* 


After  the  Prepositions  sans,  avec  or  apres,  the  above 
Pronouns  acted  upon  by  them,  may  be  always  properly 
used  for  animals  or  things. 

EXAMPLES. 


Elle  en  raffole,  elle  ne  saurait 
faire  un  pas  sans  lui. 

On  m*  a  dit  qu'  il  ne  sortait  ja- 
mais sans  ses  pistolets  ;  ce- 
la  est  vrai,  il  ne  sort  jamais 
sans  eux. 

Ce  torrent  est  si  rapide  qu'  il 
entraine  avec  lui  tout  ce  qu' 
il  rencontre ;  il  ne  laisse 
apres  lui  que  du  sable  &  des 
cailloux. 

Les  plaisirs  ne  laissent  sou- 
vent  apres  eux  que  des  re- 
grets. 


She  dotes  upon  him,  she  can- 
not go  a  single  step  without 
him — (a  lap  dog). 

I  have  been  told  that  he  never 
went  out  without  his  pistols  ; 
it  is  true,  he  never  goes  out 
without  them. 

This  torrent  is  so  rapid,  that  it 
carries  with  it  every  thing 
it  meets  with  ;  it  leaves 
nothing  behind  it  but  sand 
and  pebbles. 

Pleasures  often  leave  nothing 
after  them  but  regret. 


In  many  other  cases  which  custom  alone  can  point  out, 
the  above  Pronouns  may  be  used  for  things  with  other 
Prepositions. 

1st,  With  the  Preposition  a,  in  speaking  of  an  enemy's 
arniy,  we  say  ;  nous  marchames  d  elle,  wq  marched  up 


350 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


to  it :  this  is  even  the  most  proper  way  of  expressing  that 
idea,  in  French. 

2d,  With  de  ;  as,  ces  choses  sont  bonnes  ^'  elks  memes^ 
these  things  are  good  in  themsehes, 

3d,  With  pour ;  as,  J^  ainie  la  verity  au  point  que  je 
sacrifierais  tout  pour  elle^  I  love  truth  to  that  degree  that 
I  would  sacrifice  every  thingybr  it, 

4th,  With  en  ;  as,  ces  raisons  sont  solidcs  en  ellcs 
memes^  these  reasons  are  solid  in  themselves, 

Lui  and  leur^  without  a  Preposition,  may  apply  to 
animals  or  things^  as  in  the  following  phrases,  and  the 
like. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ce  cheval  a  faim,  donnez-/za" 

a  manger. 
Cette   plante   8c  ces  Grangers 

ont  besoin   d'  eau ;    il  faut 

leur  en  donner. 


This  horse  is  hungry,  give/«/;z 
'Something  to  cat. 

That  plant  and  these  orange- 
trees  want  water; 
to  be  given  to  than 


it  ought 


A  man  very  fond  of  a  house  which  he  has  embellished, 
may  say. 


y  ai  fait  de  grandes  depen- 
ses;  mais  elle  m'  en  dedom- 
mage  bien  ;  car  je  lui  dois 
toute  ma  sante  Sc  mon  bien- 
etre  ;  Je  ne  vivrais  pas  sans 
elle. 


I  have  there  been  at  much  ex' 
pense  ;  but  it  has  well  in- 
demnified me  for  it ;  for  to 
it  I  owe  my  health  and  my 
comfort ;  I  could  not  live 
without  it. 


Onp  may  also  say  with  great  propriety. 


Ce  chien  8c  ces  oiseaux  font 
tout  mon  plaisir  ;  Je  n'  aime 
qu'  eiix  }  eux  seuls  font  tout 
mon  amusement  ;  Je  ne 
songe  qu'  a  cuoc. 


This  dog  and  these  birds  are 
all  my  pleasure  ;  I  love  no- 
thing but  the-ai ;  they  alone 
are  my  diversion ;  I  think 
of  nothino:  else  but  them. 


The  English  compound  Pronouns,  himself.,  herself  it- 
self themselves.,  are  rendered,  in  French,  when  they  serve 
to  make  a  verb  reflected^  by  .v^,  as  it  has  been  evidenced 
in  the  conjugation  of  .9'  habiller,  to  dress  onc^s  self — But, 
when  they  do  not  render  the  Verb  refected^  they  are  ex- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


pressed  by  lid  or  lui'triSme;  die  or  elle-meme;  eux  or  eux^me'- 
mes;  elles  or  elles-memes,  according  to  gender  and  number. 

EXAMPLES. 


He   always  speaks  of  himself 
and  never  of  others. 

He  told  me  he  had  spoken  to 
herself,  to  themselves. 


II  parle  toujours  de  lid  ou  de 

lui  me7nc  Sc   jamais  ties  au- 

tres. 
II  m'  a  dit  qu'  il  avait  parle  a 

elle  meme,    a   eux-memes,    a 

elles  memes. 

One's  self,  himself,  and  herself,  in  the  singular,  used  in 
a  vague  and  indeterminate  sense,  or  after  the  indetermi- 
nate words,  one,  people,  every  body,  no  body,  rvhoever,  &c. 
and  itself,  applying  to  things  determinate  or  indetermi- 
nate, are  rendered,  in  French,  by  soi. 

EXAMPLES. 


On  doit  travailler  non  seule- 
ment  pour  soi,  mais  aussi 
pour  la  societe. 

Chacun  pour  soi,  dit  V  egoiste. 


Personne  n'  est  sur  de  soi, 

L'  homme  qui   n'  aime    que 
soi,  ne  se  fait  point  d*  amis. 

Quiconque  ne  pense  qu'  a  soi, 

est  indigne  de  vivre. 
La  vertu  est  aimable  de  soi. 
L'  aimant  attire  le  fer  a  soi. 

Cela  est  bon  en  soi. 


One  should  not  only  work 
for  one's  self,  but  also  for 
society. 

Every  one  for  one's  self,  says 
the  man  who  cares  for  no- 
body but  himself. 

Nobody  can  answer  for  hi?n- 
self     . 

The  man  who  loves  nobody 
but  himself,  does  not  make 
friends. 

Whoever  thinks  only  of  him- 
selfj  is  unworthy  of  living. 

Virtue  is  amiable  oi  itself. 

The  loadstone  attracts  iron  to 
itself. 

That  is  good  in  itself 


Observe,  that  in  speaking  of  persons,  me?ne  is  very 
commonly,  and  sometimes  indispensably  fl<f^e<5f  to  5d?/,  as 
in  the  following  examples  : 


Il    ne    faut   pas  se  louer  soi- 

meffie, 
II  faut  se  rendre  compte  a  soi- 

meme. 
Avoir  un  ami  c'  est  avoir  un 

autre  soi-meme. 


One  must  not  praise  one's  self 

One   should  count  with  one*s 

self 
To  have  a  friend  is  to   have 

another  self. 


552 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  THIRTEENTH. 

OF  SOME  DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE  FRENCH 

LANGUAGE. 


FIRST  DIFFICULTY. 

The  word  le  is  used,  in  French,  to  represent — 1st,  A 
part  of  a  phrase  or  even  a  whole  one — 2d,  An  Adjective 
or  Substantive  taken  Adjectively — 3d,  A  Substantive  or 
Adjective  masculine  taken  Substantively. 

In  the  two  jirst  instances  le  is  an  Adverb^  and  of  course 
can  suffer  no  alteration.  In  the  third^  as  it  represents 
a  Suhstanthe  or  a  Nouriy  it  is  subject  to  the  laws  of  con- 
cordance, which  require  it  should  assume  the  gender  and 
number  thereof. 

1st,  Le  representing  part  of  a  phrase,  or  a  whole  Pro- 
position. 

EXAMPLES. 


Can  you  go  to  New  Orleans? 


If  the  public  has  had  some  in- 
dulgence for  me,  I  owe  it 
to  your  protection. 


Fouvez-vous  aller  a  la  Nouvelle 
Orleans  ?  Oui,  je  It  puis. — 
{^Le  is  used  instead  of  y  aller, 
which  is  understood). 

SJ  le  public  a  eu  quelque  in- 
dulgence pour  moi,  je  le 
(dois  a  votre  protection. — 
(Je  le  dois  is  clearly  equiva- 
ient  to,  je  dois  que  le  public 
ait  eu  quelque  indulgence 
pour  moi). 


"  Si  Rome  a  souvent  meme  estime  mes  efforts, 
*VC*  est  u  vous,  ombre  illustre,  a  vous  que  je  le  dois." 

2d,  Le  representing  an  Adjective,  or  a  Substantive  taken 
Adjectively. 

EXAMPLES. 

Madame,   etes-vo\is    malade  ?  I  Madam,  are  you  sick  I  Yes,  I 
Oui,  je  le  suis.  |      am  (so). 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


359 


Mesdemoiselles,^tes-vous  mu- 

siciennes?  Oui,nous  le  som- 

mes. 
Messieurs,  etes-vous  hferitiers 

du   defunt  ?    Oui,   nous   le 

sommes. 


Young  Ladies,  arc  you  musi- 
cians ?  Yes,  we  are.  f^oj. 

Gentlemen,  are  you  heirs  of 
the  deceased  l  Yes,  ive  are 
(so). 


Passant  I  c'  est  un  enfant,  ton  maitre. 
II  /'  est,  le  fut,  gu  le  doit  etre, 

Zaire  es-tu  Chretienne  ? 

Oui,  Seigneur,  je  le  suis. 

N>  B*  In  the  above  phrases  the  Adverb  le  is  the  corres- 
pondent of  the  Adverb  so^  which  is  understood  in  Eng- 
lish. 

3d,  Le^  la^  or  /e?,  representing  a  Noun  or  an  Adjective 
taken  Substantively^  according  to  circumstances  of  gender 
and  number. 


EXAMPLES. 


Monsieur,  etes-vous  le  mede- 

cin  ?  Oui,  je  le  suis. 
Madame,  etes-vous  la  malade  ? 

Oui,  je  la  suis. 
Mesdemoiselles,  etes-vous  les 

musiciennes  ?  Oui,  nous  les 

sommes. 
Messieurs,  etes-vous  les  heri- 

tiers  du  defunt  ?  Non,  nous 

ne  les  sommes  pas. 


Sir,  are  you  the  physician? 
Yes,  I  am. 

Madam,  are  you  the  patient  ? 
Yes,  I  am. 

Young  Ladies,  are  you  the  mu- 
sicians ?  Yes,  we  are. 

Gentlemen,  are  you  the  heirs 
of  the  deceased  ?  No,  we 
are  not. 


N,  B.  In  the  Jirst  example,  le^  instead  of  being  used 
for  an  Adverb,  is  used  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the 
Noun  medecin  :  it  is  the  same  in  the  other  examples  with 
regard  to  la  or  les, 

SECOND  DIFFICULTY. 

The  words  chaciin  and  leur  present  great  and  numer- 
ous difficulties.  But  we  shall  not  enter  into  a  critical 
investigation  of  the  opinions  of  different  grammarians 
on  that  head ;  for  we  cannot  see  what  advantage  could 
be  derived  to  the  Scholar,  to  compensate  for  the  e?inui 
that  might  attend  such  a  discussion.  We  shall,  there- 
fore^ pass  on,  and  only  give  a  few  phrases  wherein  chacun 


354  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 

is  put  in  its  proper  place,  in  order  that  they  may  serve  as 
a  model  for  forming  others  similar  thereto. 

EXAMPLES. 


Chacune  de   ces  charrettes   a 

perdu  son  essieu. 
Chacune  de    ces    femmes    est 

tres-attach6e  a  son  mari. 

Que  chacun   de   nous  prenne 

son  chapeau. 
Que  chacun  de  nous  s'  en  ai- 

lle  chez  soi. 
Chacun  s'  en  alia  chez  soi. 


Each  of  these  carts  has  lost  its 
axle-tree. 

Each  of  these  women  is  very 
much  attached  to  her  hus- 
band. 

Let  each  of  us  take  his  hat. 

Let  each  of  us  go  to  his  house. 
Every  one  went  to  his  house. 


Instead  of  the  above  phrases,  the  following  less  cor- 
rect ones  are  frequently  used  in  conversation  and  even  in 
'writing, 

"Ces  deux  charrettes  ont  perdu  chacune  leur  essieu   (ou 

leurs  essieux). 
Ces  femmes  sont  tres-attachees  chacune  a  kur  mari  (ou 

a  leurs  maris). 
Prenons,  chacun  notre  chapeau  (ou  nos  chapeaux). 
AUons-nous  en,  chacun  chez  nous, 
lis  s'  en  allerent,  chacun  chez  eux»" 

It  must  strike  every  one  who  w  ill  reflect  on  the  above 
modes  of  expression,  that  leur  or  leurs^  elliptical  terms 
for  ^'  eux  or  d'  elles^  relating  to  one  of  the  three  persons 
plural^  can  never  be  used  after  the  distributive  term 
chacun^  because  the  latter,  dividing  by  unities  the  Sub- 
stantive which  precedes  it,  will  not  allow  the  Substantive 
which  follows,  to  be  construed  with  a  word  that  imposes 
upon  it  a  relation  in  appertenance  to  a  plurality^  which  in 
the  hypothesis  cannot  exist  any  longer,  since  it  has  been 
divided  by  unities  :  the  foregoing  phrases  are,  therefore, 
contrary  to  sound  Logic. 

We  will  remark,  with  a  judicious  grammarian,  that, 
though  one  can  never  use  leur^  lenrs^  after  chacun^  it  does 
not  follow  one  always  can  use  son^  sa^  ses^  es  one  can  by 
no  means,  say  ;  ^'  lis  ont  apporte  chacun  son  offrande*  This 
is  the  rule — One  cannot  use  son^  sa,  ses^  whenever  that 
which  precedes  chacun^  does  not  offer  a  complete  and 
finished  sense  :  whenever  one  cannot  make  out  of  what 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  355 

precedes  chacun^  a  phrase  from  which,  what  follows  this 
distributive  Article  be  independent. — One  can  only  use 
son^  sa^  ses,  after  chacun^  but  when  the  latter  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  phrase  in  which  these  possessive  A.rticles  are  ; 
It  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  what  precedes  chaciin^  be 
a  complete  phrase  ;  because  one  does  not  begin  a  new 
phrase,  till  the  preceding  one  is  completed :  therefore  we 
cannot  say, 

Ces  deux  charrettes  ont  perdu  chacune  son  essieu. 
Ces  femmes  sont  tres-attachees  chacune  a  son  mari. 
Prenons  chacun  son  chapeau. 


fCes  deux  charrettes  ont  perdu 

because  <  Ces  femmes  sont  tres-attachees 

(^  Prenons 

are  not  complete  phrases  :  every  Verb  which  terminates 
them  is  in  want  of  a  complement* — But  on  the  contrary, 
one  may  say. 


lis  ont  tous  apporte  des  of- 
frandes,  chacun  selon  ses 
moyens. 

lis  ont  tous  juge  differemment, 
chacun  selon  ses  intercts. 

lis  passerent  tous  en  revue  de- 
vant  r  Inspecteur,  chacun  a 
son  tour. 

Elles  partirent  pour  Paris, 
chacune  dans  sa  voiture. 


They  have  all  brought  offer- 
ings, each  according  to  his 
means. 

They  have  all  judged  differ- 
ently, each  according  to  his 
interests. 

They  were  reviewed  by  the 
Inspector,  each  in  its  turn. 

They  all  set  off  for  Paris,  each 
in  her  coach. 


J  C  lis  ont  tous  apporte  des  offrandes- 

\  lis  ont  tous  juge  differemment — 


are  complete  phrases  :  the  words  following  chacwi  are  not 
necessary  to  the  fulness  of  the  sense  thereof;  chacun  be- 
gins a  new  phrase,  to  express  a  circumstance  of  the  action 
which  is  expressed  in  the  first. — This  circumstance  is 
necessary  to  the  full  expression  of  the  thought ;  but  it  is 
not  so  to  fix  the  just  signification  of  the  words  which 
precede  this  distributive  Article. 

lis  ont  tons  apporte  des  ojfrandes  an  temple,  chacun  selon 
ses  moyens. — That  is  to  say, 


lis  ont  tous  apporte  des  offran- 
des  au  temple,  £c  chacun  en 
a  apporte  selon  ses  movons. 


They  have  all  brought  offer- 
ings to  the  temple,  and 
every  one  has  brought  some 


VOL.   II.  Z  2 


according  to  his  means. 


356 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY* 


We  might  here,  indeed,  indulge  ourselves  with  some 
criticisms  on  the  modes  of  expression  relative  to  chaciin^ 
used  by  several  writers : — But,  after  what  has  already  been 
said  on  this  subject,  it  would  be  rather  a  matter  of  gram- 
matical curiosity  than  of  real  utility  ;  for  the  above  rules, 
supported  by  practice,  will  solve,  I  believe,  every  diffi- 
culty concerning  chacun, 

THIRD  DIFFICULTY. 

^elque^  signifying  tho*^  altho*^  -whatever^  whatsoever^ 
however^  or  howsoever^  in  English,  is  an  Adverb^  when  it 
is  placed  before  an  Adjective  separated  from  its  Noun^ 
and  is,  therefore,  invariably  quelque : — It  always  requires 
the  Verb  in  the  subjunctive  preceded  by  the  Conjunction 
que. 

EXAMPLES. 


Quelque  riches  gu'  ils  soient, 
ils  ont  toujours  peur  de  man- 
que r. 

Quelque  bonnes  que  soient  vos 
raisons,  on  ne  les  ecoutera 
pas. 

Quelque  ruses  qu'  ils  parais- 
sent,  ils  sont  quelquefois 
trompes. 


Though  they  be  ever  so  rich, 

they    are    always   afraid  of 

being  in  want. 
yllt hough  your  reasons  be  ever 

so  good,    they  will  not  be 

heard. 
However  cunning  they  appear, 

they   are   sometimes  taken 

in. 


*'  Quelque  brillans  que  soient  les  dons  de  la  fortvme, 
"  La  vertu  les  efface,  elle  seule  a  du  prix.  " 

But,  if  quelque^  with  the  same  meaning  as  above,  be 
placed  before  a  plural  Noun,  either  by  itself  or  joined 
to  an  Adjective^  it  takes  the  mark  of  the  plural^  as  it  then 
becomes  an  Adjective, 

EXAMPLES. 


Quelques  fautes  qu^  il  ait  com- 
mises,  je  lui  pardonnerai. 

Queljuen  heurcux  talens  que 
vous  ayez  vous  ne  reussi- 
rcz  jamais  sana  applica- 
tion. 


V/hatever  faults  he  may  have 
committed,  I  will  forgive 
him. 

IVhatever  happy  talents  you 
may  have,  you  v/ill  never 
succeed  without  application. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 


35r 


^lelque  is  followed  by  qui  with  the  subjunctive  in  the 
following  examples  and  the  like  : 


Quelques  avantages  qui  lui 
soient  offerts,  il  ne  les  ac- 
ceptera  pas. 


Whatever  advantages  may  be 
offered  to  him,  he  will  not 
accept  of  them. 


"  Quelques  prix  glorieux  qui  lui  soient  proposes ; 
"  Quels  lauriers  me  plairont  de  son  sang  arroses  ?" 

In  the  French  language,  when  the  Verb  etre  is  used, 
the  construction  of  the  phrase  will  not  admit,  sometimes, 
of  a  Noun  or  Adjective  being  interposed  between  quelque 
and  the  Verb ;  then  quelque  becomes  quel  que  governing 
the  subjunctive^  and  quel  is  liable  to  gender  and  number. 

The  following  examples  will  point  to  the  scholar  in 
what  circumstance  that  mode  of  expression  may  be  used, 

EXAMPLES. 


II    ne   veut   entendre    parler 

d'   aucun  accommodement, 

quel  qu*  il  puisse  etre. 
Quelles  que  soient  les  nouvelles, 

faites  m'  en  part. 
Envoyez-moi     ces    marchan- 

dises,  quelles  qiC  elles  soient. 
Quels  que    soient    vos    amis, 

vous  ne  1'  obtiendrez  pas. 
Quelle  ywesoit  cette  demoiselle, 

elle  est  bien  mal-honnete. 
Je    ne  me  soucie  pas   de  lui, 

quel  qu^  il  soit. 


He  will  not  hear  of  any  ac- 
commodation, nvhatever  it 
may  be. 

Whatever  the  news  may  be, 
impart  it  to  me. 

Send  me  those  goods,  nvhat- 
ever they  may  be. 

Whoever  your  friends  may  be, 
you  will  not  obtain  it. 

Whoever  this  young  lady  be, 
she  is  very  impolite. 

I  do  not  care  for  him,  ivhoever 
he  may  be. 


"  Mais  quel  que  soit  1'  etat  ou  ton  penchant  t'  appelle, 
"  Que  la  probite  soit  ta  compagne  fidelle.'-' 

"  Quel  que  soit  V  interet  qui  fait  parler  la  reine, 

"  La  reponse.  Seigneur  I  doit-elle  etre  incertaine  ?  " 

FOURTH  DIFFICULTY. 

Tout^  when  it  corresponds  to  the  Adverbs*  quite,  en- 
tirely^ or  the  Conjunctions  tho\  altho\  &:c.  is  invariable ;  ex- 
cept when  it  precedes  an  Adjective  feminine  beginning 
with  a  consonant,  or  h  aspirated,  as  custom  requires,  that 
it  should  then  assume  the  inflection  of  the  Adjective, 


35S 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Observe,  that  when  tout  corresponds  to  the  above  con- 
junctions, the  Adjective  is  follow edhj  que ^  which  governs 
the  Verb  in  the  indicative. 

EXAMPLES. 


Cette  femme  fut  toute  sur- 
prise. 

Elle  a  la  figure  toute  halee. 

Elles  furentifow/espenetrees  de 
douleur. 

Elle  etait  toute  honteuse. 

Toute  charmante  qu^  elle  est. 

Toute  malade  qu'  elle  etait, 
elle  est  parfaitement  guerie. 

Toutes  hardies  qiC  elles  sont. 

Toute  femme  que  je  suis. 

Toute  voire  amie  qu'  elle  est. 


This  woman  was  quite  sur- 
prised. 

Her  face  is  quite  sunburnt. 

They  were  quite  overwhelmed 
with  grief. 

She  was  quite  ashamed. 

Although  she  is  charming. 

Sick  as  she  was,  she  is  per- 
fectly cured. 

Although  they  are  bold. 

Although  I  am  a  woman. 

Although  she  is  your  friend. 


But,  before  a  vorvcl  or  an  h  mute^  and  before  an  Adjec- 
tive  masculine  plural,  it  remains  invariably  tout. 

EXAMPLES. 


Elle  fut  to7it  etonnee. 

Elles  etaient  tout  habillees  de 

blanc. 
lis  etaient  tout  interdits. 

lis  etaient  tout  mouilles. 
Tout  innocente  qu*  elle  etait. 
Tout  humble  qu'  elle  est. 
Tout  airQables  qu'  elles  sont. 
Tout  sages  qu*  ils  sont. 
Tout  charmans  qu'  ils  parais- 
sent  etre. 


She  was  quite  astonished. 

They  were  entirely  dressed  in 
white. 

They  were  quite  thunder- 
struck. 

They  were  quite  wet. 

Although  she  was  innocent. 

Although  she  is  humble. 

Though  they  are  amiable. 

Although  tliey  are  v/ise. 

Although  they  appear  to  be 
charming. 


The  Adjective  tout,  on  the  contrary,  is  always  obedient 
to  the  laws  of  concordajice. 


EXAMPLES. 


Elles  furent  toutes  etonnees. 
Elles  etaient  ^3w;c5  habillees  de 

blanc. 
lis  etaient  tous  interdits. 
Ils  furent  tou^  mouilles. 


They  were  all  astonished. 
They  were  all  dressed  in  white. 

They  were  all  thimder-struck. 
They  were  cdl  wet. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  359 


FIFTH  DIFFICULTY. 


Meme^  a  Pronoun  singular,  after  moi^  toi,  soi,  hit,  ellcy 
takes  the  mark  of  the  plural^  after  nous^  votis,  euxy  elles; 
and  is  always  joined  to  the  above  Pronouns  hy^i  hyphen: 
it  is  used  to  give  more  energy  to  the  expression. 

EXAMPLES. 

Moi-m<?me,  tdi-meme,  soi-me/ne,  lui-nieme,  elle-meme,  nous- 
memesj  Yous-memes,  eux-?nemes,  e\\es-?neme8. 

"  Soyons   vrais ;    de    nos  maux  n'    accusons   que    nous- 
memes,  ** 

When  meme  answers  to  same^  it  is  an  Adjective^  and,  of 
course,  is  liable  to  all  the  accidents  thereof. 

EXAMPLES. 


Le    meme   homme  ;    la  meme 

femme. 
Les    memes    sentimens ;     les 

mejnea  raisons. 


The  same  man  ;  the  same  wo- 
man. 

The  same  sentiments ;  the 
same  reasons. 


Meme  answering  to  eiien  is  an  Adverb^  and,  therefore, 
does  not  vary. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  L*  estime  &  le  respect  sent  les  justes  tributs 

"  Qu'  aux  cceurs  meme  ennemis  arrachent  les  vertus.  '* 

Observe,  that  memc^  same,  in  a  comparative  sense,  re- 
quires que :  therefore,  St.  Evremond,  in  speaking  of  the 
Romans,  instead  of  saying, 


Les  esclaves  s'  animaient  du 
meme  esprit  de  leur  maitre, 


The  slaves  were  animated 
with  the  same  spirit  as  their 
master, 


Should  have  said, 

"  Les   esclaves    s'  animaient   du   77ie7)ic  esprit   gue   leur 
maitre." 


!60 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 
SIXTH    DIFFICULTY. 


L*  un  r  autre,  P  unc  /'  autre ;  les  uns  Ics  autres,  ^c.  an- 
swering to  o?ie  another,  in  English,  is  used  whenever  the 
Verb  reJleElivc  becomes  reciprocaU 


EXAMPLES. 


lis  s'  alment  /'  un  V  autre  de- 

piiis  leur  enfance. 
Nous  devons  nous  aider  les  uns 

les  autres. 


They  love    one  another  since 

their  youth. 
We  should  help  one  another* 


"  En  ce  monde,  il  se  faut  V  un  V  autre  secourir." 

When  a  Preposition  is  to  affect  one  another,  V  un  1'  au- 
tre, it  is,  in  English,  placed  before  it ;  but,  in  French,  it 
is  placed  between  /'  un  and  /'  autre. 

EXAMPLES. 


lis  se  sont  donne  le  mot  les 

uns  auoo  autres. 
lis     travaillerent     comme     a 

r  envi  r  un  de  1'  autre. 

lis  briilerent  les  vaisseaux  les 
ims  (lea  autres. 


They  gave    the   word  to  one 

another. 
They    worked   as    if  it   were 

through  emulation    of   one 

another. 
They  burnt  the  vessels  o/'each 

other. 


SEVENTH  DIFFICULTY. 

V  un  &  /'  autre,  both,  requires  the  Verb  which  re- 
lates to  it  always  in  the  plural,  notwithstanding  the  au- 
thority of  some  Grammarians,  who,  countenanced  by 
some  writers  and  even  by  the  French  Academy,  pretend 
that  the  Verb  may  be  either  singular  ov  plural ;  but  Logic, 
stronger  than  all  grammatical  authorities  put  together, 
joined  to  polite  practice,  reproves  the  latter  construction, 
and  only  admits* the  former  now. 


L*   un    Sc    r   autre   voii'i    o7it 

oblige. 
L'  un    Sc  i'   autre  sent   mau- 

vais. 
L'    un    &    r    autre    ont    ete 

payes. 


EXAMPLES. 

Both  have  obliged  you. 
Each  of  them  are  bad. 
They  tvere  both  paid. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  361 

/ 
Remark,   that  the  Preposition,  which  in  /'  un  P  autre 
can  only  affect  /'  autre^  affects  both  /'  un  and  /'  autre. 


II  est  ami  de  V   un   &;   de  V 

autre. 
J'    ai    parle   a    1'   un    &   a   1' 

autre. 
EUe  n'  a  voulu  ni  des  uns  ni 

des  autre  s. 


EXAMPLES. 

He  is  a  friend  to  both. 

I  spoke  to  both. 

She  would  have  none  o/'them. 


Ni  r  un  ni  /'  autre,  neither,  follows  the  same  syntax  with 
/'  un  &.  /'  autre^ 

EXAMPLES. 


Ni  r  un,  ni  1'  autre  ne  vie7i- 

dront. 
Ni  r  un,  ni  1'  autre  ne  vous 

ont  trompe. 
Je  n*  ai  parle  ni  a  V  un  ni  a 

V  autre. 


Neither  of  them  nvill  come. 

Neither  of  them  has  deceived 

you. 
I  spoke  to  neither  q/*them. 


Observe,  that  /'  un  ou  P  autre^  either,  requires  the  Verb 
should  be  in  the  aingular :  and  the  same  Preposition  should 
be  used  before  both  /'  un  and  /'  autre. 

Scholar. 
To  say  that  a  woman  appears  to  be  good  ;  which  of  th  J^ 
two  following    modes  of    expression  must  be  used  in 

French  t 

Cette  femme  a  1'  air  bon,  ou      I  This  woman  has  a  good-natur- 
Cette  femme  a  1'  air  bonne.        \       ed  countenance. 

Master. 

As  the  Verb  a  and  /'  air^  though  constituting  a  com- 
pound expression,  express  but  the  single  idea  which  may 
be  represented  by  the  Verbs  semble,  parait ;  and  as  the 
Adjective  bon  is  not  used  to  qualify  merely  the  rt/r,  but 
the  -woman  herself;  whose  air  announces  the  moral  quality 
which  is  affirmed  of  her :  I  think  that  a  preference  must 
be  given  to  "  Cette  femme  a  I'  air  bonne^"*  though  almost 
every  Grammarian  be  in  favour  of  the  other  mode  of  ex- 
pression. 

If,  instead  of  saying,  "  cette  femme  a  /'  air,"  you  had 
said,  "cette  femme  azmair,  Sec."  ^o^J  instead  of  ^57i/]^  must 


3G2  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

necessarily  be  used,  because  the  qttalit^  is  no  longer  af- 
firmed of  the  woman,  but  of  the  air  itself. 

Observe,  one  should  not  confound  "  avoir  1'  air  man- 
vais,^^  to  look  ill-natured,  with  "  avoir  mauvais  air,"  to 
have  a  mean  appearance  ;  as  the  former  relates  to  the 
moral  character  of  a  person,  and  the  latter  to  appearance. 
Also,  that  the  former  mode  of  expression  requires  before 
air  the  Article,  which  the  latter  does  not  admit. 

EXAMPLE. 

Cleon,  lorsque  vous  nous  bravez, 

En  demontant  votre  figure, 
Vous  n'  avez  pas  1'  air  mauvais;  je  vous  jure, 

C  est  mauvais  air  que  vous  avez. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  FOURTEENTH. 

OJ\r  THE   USE  OF  THE   TEJVSES  AJVD    THEIR  COR- 
RESPOJVDEJVCE   WITH  EACH  OTHER. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


PRESENT. 

This  tense  is  used,  1st,  to  denote  an  actual  state,  as, 

Je  suis  fache  de  tout  ce  qui  I  I  am  sorry  for  all  that  has  hap- 
vous  est  arrive.  |      pened  to  you. 

2d,  It  is  used  in  propositions  of  eternal  truth,  as. 


Dieu  seul  est  tout  puissant. 
Les  trois  angles  d'  un  triangle 
valent  deux  angles  droits. 


God  alone  is  almighty. 
The  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  equal  to  two  right  angles. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


363 


3d,  It  is  used  in  lieu  of  the  future  in  the  following 
phrase  and  the  like. 

Je  fiars  demain  pour  la  Nou-  I  J  ^et  out  to-morrow  for  New- 
velle-York.  p   York. 

It  is  here  proper  to  mention,  that  "  je  pars  demain  and 
je  partirai  demain"  do  not  convey  exactly  the  same  idea  ; 
the  latter  meaning,  that  one  intends  or  one  is  disposed  to 
set  off,  while  the  former  expresses  along  with  it  a  de- 
gree of  impatience  that  the  circumstance  should  take 
place. 

The  same  difference  also  exists,  but  rather  in  a  more 
pointed  manner,  between  the  two  modes  of  expression. 


Finissez-VQXMs,  bientot  ?  and, 
Finirez-yovi%  bientot  ? 


Do  you  finish  soon  ? 
Will  )'OU  soon  hfrve  done  ? 

The  first  expresses  a  fit  of  impatience^  while  the  second 
may  be  dictated  by  mere  curiosity* 

4th,  It  is  often  used  in  the  recital  of  an  event  instead 
of  the  past  tense — The  present^  by  rendering  the  event  'in 
some  degree  visible,  highly  enhances  the  interest  it  may 
inspire,  and  makes  the  hearer  feel,  at  least,  a  part  of  the 
sensations  he  would  have  experienced,  had  he  been  a 
spectator. 

Here  is  an  instance  of  the  present.,  being  used  for  the 
past^  taken  from  Telemachus. — Adoam^  after  having  re- 
lated various  circumstances  attending  the  death  oi  Pyg- 
malion^ goes  on  in  the  following  manner. 


Cependant  tout  la  palais  est 
plein  d'  un  tumulte  affreux  ; 
en  entend  par-tout  les  cris 
de  ceux  qui  disent :  le  roi 
est  mort.  Les  uns  sont  ef- 
frayes,  les  autres  convent  eux 
armes  ;  tous  paraissent  en 
peine  des  suites,  mais  ravis 
de  cette  nouvelle.  La  re- 
nommee  la  fait  voler,  de 
bouchc  en  bouche,danstoute 
la  grande  villa  de  Tyr,  Sc  il 
ne  se  trouvc  pas  un  seul 
homme  qui  regrette  le  roi  : 
sa  mort  est  la  dalivrance  Sc 
la  consolation  de  tout  le 
peuple. 

VOL.    II.  A 


In  the  mean  time,  the  palace 
/*  in  the  utmost  confusion, 
and  on  all  sides  are  heard 
the  cries  :  the  king  is  dead. 
Some  are  terrified ;  others 
run  to  arms ;  and  all  seem 
in  pain  for  the  consequen- 
ces, but  overjoyed  at  the 
news.  Fame  carries  it  from 
mouth  to  mouth,  throughout 
all  the  great  city  of  Tyre, 
and  there  is  not  a  single 
person  who  laments  the 
king  :  his  death  is  the  de- 
liverance and  consolation  of 
all  the  people. 

a  a 


J64  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

But,  it  is  in  Poetry,  that  the  present  animates  with  a 
peculiar  degree  of  energy,  and  graces  the  recital  of  a  trans- 
lation :  witness  the  following  magic  lines  of  the  immor- 
tal Racine,  wherein  Th^ramene  relates  to  Theseus  the 
death  of  his  son  HyppolituS* 

«  Un  effroyable  cri,  sorti  du  fond  des  flots, 

Des  airs,  en  ce  moment,  a  trouble  le  repos  ; 

Et,  du  sein  de  la  terre,  une  voix  formidable 

Repondy  en  gemissant,  a  ce  cri  redoutable. 

Jusqu*  au  fond  de  nos  coeurs  notre  sang  s'  est  glace. 

Des  coursiers  attentifs  le  crin  s'  est  herisse. 

Cependant,  sur  le  dos  de  la  plaine  liquide, 

S'  Sieve  a  gros  bouillons  une  montagne  humide. 

U  onde  approche^  se  brise^  &  vomit  a  nos  yeux, 

Parmi  des  flots  d'  ecume,  un  monstre  furieux. 

Son  front  large  est  arme  de  cornes  menacantes ; 

Tout  son  corps  est  convert  d'  ecailles  jaunissantes. 

Indomptable  taureau,  dragon  impetueux, 

Sa  croupe  se  recourhe  en  replis  tortueux  ; 

$es  longs  mugi&semensybw;  trembler  le  rivage. 

Le  ciel  avec  horreur  voit  ce  monstre  sauvage. 

La  terre  s'  en  emeut^  V  air  en  est  infecte, 

Le  fiot  qui  1'  apporta  recule  epouvante. 

Toxxifidt ;  Sc,  sans  s'  armer  d'  un  courage  inutile, 

Dans  le  temple  voisin  chacun  cherche  un  asile. 

Hippolyte  lui  seul,  digue  fils  d'  un  heras, 

^Irrete  ses  coursiers,  .sa^'s^V  ses  javelots, 

Pousse  au  monstre,  &,  d'  un  dard  lance  d'  une  main  sure, 

11  lui  fait  dans  le  ftanc  une  large  blessure. 

De  rage  &  de  douleur  le  monstre  bondissant 

Vient  aux  pieds  des  chevaux  tomber  en  mugissant, 

Se  roule^  &  leur  presente  une  gueule  enflammee, 

Qui  les  couvre  de  feu,  de  sang  Sc  de  fum6e. 

La  fiayeur  les  emporte  /  &,  sourds  acette  fois, 

lis  ne  reconnaissent  plus  ni  le  frein,  ni  la  voix. 

En  efforts  impuissans  leur  maitre  se  consume. 

lis  roiigisseJit  le  mords  d'  une  sanglante  ecume. 

On  dit  qu'  on  a  vu  meme,  en  ce  desordre  aifreux, 

Un  dieu  qui  d*  aiguillons  pressait  leur  flanc  poudreux- 

A  travers  les  rochers  la  peur  les  precifiite, 

L'  essieu  crie  &  se  rompt,     L'  intrepide  Hippolyte 

Voit  voler  en  eclats  tout  son  char  fracasse. 

Dans  les  renes  lui-meme  il  tombe  embarrasse. 

Excuse z  ma  douleur.     Cette  image  cruelle 

Ssra  pourmoi  de  pleurs  une  source  eternclle* 

J'  ai  vu,  Seigneur,  j'  ai  vu  votre  malheureux  iils 

Traine  par  ks  cbevuux  que  sa  m:>in  a  nourris. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  365 

II  veut  les  rappeller,  &  sa  voix  les  effraie» 

lis  courent.     Tout  son  corps  n'  est  bientot  qu'  une  plaiee. 

De  nos  cris  douloureux  la  plaine  retentit, 

Leur  fougue  impetvieuse  enfin  se  ralentit, 

lis  6-'  arretent^  non  loin  de  ces  tombeaux  antiques, 

Ou  des  rois  ses  aieux  sont  les  froides  rcHques. 

Je  cours^  en  soupirant,  &  sa  garde  me  suit, 

De  son  genereux  sang  la  trace  nous  conduit, 

Les  rochersen  sontteints  ;  les  ronces  degouttantes 

Portent  de  ses  cheveux  les  depouilles  sanglantes. 

J'  arrive^  je  T  afifielle  ;  5c  me  tend  ant  la  main, 

Jl  ouvre  un  ceil  mourant  qu'  il  referme  soudain." 

Phedre,  Acte  V.  Sc.  VI. 

The  following  tenses  correspond  with  the  Present  of 
the  Indicative. 

f  Vous  partez,  aujourd  hui,  pour  Rome. 
Vous  partirez,  demain, 
^"ous  partiez,  hier,  quand  je  vous  rencontrai, 


On  dit  que< 


Vous  partitcs,  hier 
Vous  etes  parti,  ce  matin. 
Vous  etiez  parti,  hier,  avantmoi. 

Vous  fussiez  parti,  plutot,  si 

Vous  partiriez,  aujourd'hui,  si 

.Vous  seriez  parti,  hier,  si 


OBSERVATION. 

The  same  correspondence  takes  place  when  the  sentence 
is  negative^  except  in  the  present  of  the  Indicative  which 
is  supplied  by  the  present  of  the  Subjunctive ;  example  : 
On  ne  dit  pas  que  vous  partez  aujourd'hui,  would  be  a 
discordance  in  grammar ;  the  genius  of  the  French  lan- 
guage requires  that  we  should  say,  On  ne  dit  pas  que 
vous  partiez  aujourd'hui.  We  shall  soon  treat  more  at 
length  on  that  subject. 


PRESENT  ANTERIOR. 

This  tense,  as  well  as  the  Present  anterior  periodical, 
has  been,  in  treating  on  the  Verb,  so  clearly  characterised, 
with  regard  to  the  functions  it  performs,  that  I  could  say 
but  little  here  without  repeating  what  has  already  been 
said.  We  shall,  therefore,  only  mention  here  the  tenses 
which  correspond  with  it. 


366  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

They  are  the  Present  Anterior^  the  Present  Anterior 
Periodical,  and  the  Past  of  the  Indicative. 

EXAMPLES. 

Je  lisais,  quand  vous  entriez. 

Je  lisais  hier  quand  vous  entrdtes. 

Je  lisais,  il  n*  y  a  qu'  un  instant,  quand  vous  etes  entre. 

THE  PAST  ANTERIOR. 

This  tense  corresponds  with  the  Past,  Present  Anterior 
Periodical,  Past  Anterior  Periodical,  and  Present  Anterior 
of  the  Indicative. 

EXAMPLES. 


f  quand  vous  etez  entre, 
T,        •    /      J  quand  vous  entrdtes, 

]  quand  vows  jutes  entre. 


The  Past  Anterior  Periodical corresiponds  w^ith  the  Pre- 
sent  Anterior  Periodical  of  the  same  mood. 

EXAMPLES. 


Quand  j'   ens  dit   ma   le9on, 

vous  commenc^dtes, 
Apres  que  j'  eus  aime  les  jeux 

d'  enfant,  je  m*  afifiliquai  a 

des  choses  plus   importan- 

tes. 


When  I  had  said  my  lesson, 
you  began. 

After  I  had  loved  children's 
plays,  I  afiplied  myself  to 
things  of  more  importance. 


THE  COMPARATIVE  TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 

Those  tenses,  though  seldom  used,  are  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  express  with  all  possible  precision  the  moment 
when  an  action  (the  existence  of  which  is  yet  unknown) 
began. 

I  refer  you  for  further  information  on  that  subject  to 
page  194. 

They  are  exemplified  as  follows  : 


rj'  ai  (?M     ^        r 

Quand  <  J'  eus  eu      L  dine,  X  vous  entrdtes. 


vous  etez  entre, 
vous  entrdtes, 
(^J'  Uurai  eu  J  (_vous  entrerez. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


367 


Apres  que  j'  ai  eu  fait  mon 
dernier  voyage,  je  me  sids 
mis  a  r  etude  des  langues 
vivantes,  par  necessite. 

S'  il  avait  eu  aime  V  art  mili- 
taire,  avant  de  s*  y  engager, 
il  aurait  fait  plus  d'  ex- 
ploits. 


After  I  had  performed  my 
first  voyage,  I  betook  my- 
self to  the  study  of  the  liv- 
ing languages,  through  ne- 
cessity. 

Had  he  have  loved  the  military 
art  before  he  engaged  in  it, 
he  ivould  have  done  greater 
exploits. 


THE  CONDITIONAL. 

This  tense  in  the  Present  corresponds  to  the  Present 
Anterior  of  the  Indicative. 

EXAMPLE. 


Vous  sortiriez,  si  je  1*  exigeais. 


You  nvotUd  go  out,  should  I  re- 
quire it,  or  if  I  should  re- 
quire it. 


In  the  Pasty  it  corresponds  to  the  Past  Anterior  of  the 
Indicative^  or  to  the  Past  Anterior  of  the  Subjunctive. 

EXAMPLE. 


Vous  lui  auriez  accorde  cette 
grace,  s'  il  1'  avait,  ou  s*  il 
r  eUt  demoTidee 


You  would  have  panted  him 
this  favor,  if  he  had  asked  it. 


In  the  Past  comparative,  it  corresponds  to  the  Past  an- 
terior of  the  Indicative  or  that  of  the  Subjunctive. 


EXAMPLE. 


J'  aurais  eu  fni  long-tems 
avant  vous,  si  je  n'  avais 
pas  ete  interrompu,  ou  si  je 
n'  eusse  pas  ete  interrompu. 


I  should  have  done  long  before 
you,  had  I  not  been  inter- 
rupted. 


•    The  following  tenses  correspond  to  the  Conditional 
Past. 


EXAMPLES. 


Je  croyais 
J'  ai  cru 
Je  crus 
J'  avais  cru 
J'  aurais  cru 


que  vous  «e- 
riez  parti. 


I  did  believe 
I  have  believed 
I  believed 

I  had  believed    ^have  set  off 
I   would   have  ( 
believed.        J 


that  you  wow/rf 


S€8 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  FIFTEENTH. 

Oj\r  THE  SUBJUJVCTIVE. 

OF  ADJECTIVES,   NOUNS,  AND  VERBS,  WHICH  IMPOSE 
THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  FORM  TO  THE  NEXT  VERB. 


RULE   I. 


^h    ^"^?    ^"7    sei'ving  to    connect  a  Verb  with 
pcrlative^  impose  the  Subjunctive  form  to  the  Verb* 

EXAMPLES. 


su^ 


C  est  le   pcrsonnage   le  plus 

suffisant    que  y  aie  jamais 

rencontre. 
C  est  r  homme  le  plus  obiige- 

ant  dont  j'  aie  jamais   qui 

parler. 
Ce  sent  les  plus  belles  marchan- 

dises  qui  aiejit  ete  envoyees. 
Voila  bien  le  meilleur  vin  que 

j'  aie  jamais  bu. 
C  est  le  combat  le  plus  meur- 

trier  ou  cet  officier  ait  com- 

mande. 


He  is  the  most  conceited  man 
I  ever  met  with. 


He  is  the  most  obliging  man 


ever  hecLrd  of. 


that 


They  are  the  finest  goods 
have  been  sent. 

That  is,  indeed,  the  best  wine 
I  ever  drank. 

It  is  the  most  bloody  battle  in 
which  this  oSicer  command- 
ed. 


RULE   11. 


^/,  que,  oh,  generally  govern  the  Subjunctive  after 
the  words  seul,  unique,  premier,  dernier,  pas  un,  aucun,  per- 
so7ine,  rien,  peu,  qui  que  ce  soit, 

EXAMPLES. 


C   est  le   sctd   ami  qui  ^^us 

soit  reste  fidele. 
C  est  le  seul,  V  unique  souvenir 

qui  puisGc  nous  consoler. 


He  is  the  only  friend  that  re- 
mained faithful  to  you. 

It  is  the  07ily,  the  sole  remem- 
brance that  can  console  us. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


;69 


Cet  auteur  est  le  premier  qui 
en  fasse  mention. 

La  lettre  du  Dr.  Priestely  a 
Jacques  Logan,  Senateur 
des  Etats-Unis,  est  une  des 
demiere8  que  ce  grand  hom- 
me  ait  ecrites. 

II  n'  a  trouve  fiaa  un^  ou  aucun 
domestique  qui  veuille  le 
servir. 

Je  ne  connais  ^<?r«'072we  qui  vous 
8oit  plus  bincerement  at- 
tache. 

Y  a-t-il  rien  qui  soit  plus  in- 
decent que  r  habillement 
des  femmes  d*  aujourd'  hui. 

n  est  fieu  de  plaisirs  qui  ne 
aoient  suivis  de  quelques  re- 
mo  rds. 

A  qui  que  ce  soit  que  vous  vous 
adreasiez^  parlez  hardiment. 


This  author  is  the  ^rat  that 
mentions  it. 

The  letter  of  Dr.  Priestley  to 
James  Logan,  a  Senator  of 
the  United  States,  is  one  of 
the  last  this  great  man  nvrote. 

He  could  not  find  any  servant 
that  would  wait  upon  him. 

I  do  not  know  of  any  body^ 
who  is  more  sincerely  at- 
tached to  you. 

Is  there  any  thing  more  in- 
decent than  the  dress  of  the 
women  now-a-days. 

There  are  fenv  pleasures  that 
are  not  followed  by  some  re- 
morse. 

Whomsoever  you  address  your- 
self to,  speak  boldly. 


RULE  III. 

When  after  s/,  que  is  used,  instead  of  repeating  */,  it 
then  imposes  the  Subjunctive  form  on  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


«S'  il  arrive  en  Angleterre,  8c 
qu*  il  veuille  y  faire  quelque 
sejour,  il  faudra  qu'  il  obti- 
enne  1'  agrement  du  Gou- 
vemement. 

Si  vous  venez  dans  notre  pays 
8c  que  vous  y  demeuriez  quel- 
que tems,  j'  espere  que  nous 
aurons  souvcnt  le  plaisir  de 
vous  voir. 


If  he  arrive  in  England  and 
wish  to  sojourn  there  some 
time,  he  must  obtain  the 
consent  of  Government. 

If  you  come  in  our  country 
and  live  there  some  time,  I 
hope,  that  we  shall  often 
have  the  pleasure  of  seeing 
you. 


RULE  IV. 


After  all  Verbs,  which  express  dcubt^  fior^  desire^  uri' 
certainty^  the  action  of  commanding^  aupposing ;  some 
paaaiQUy  aff'edlion ;  or,  in  a  more  general  terms,  that  belong 


oro 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 


to  the  dominion  of  the  heart  or  the  will ;  quE,  imposes 
the  subjunHive  form  on  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  veux  qu'  il  s'  y  rende  sur  le 

champ. 
Je  doute  qu'  il  y  aille. 
Su/ifiosons   que    la     flotte    soit 

battue,  que  deviendront  les 

envahisseurs  ? 
Jg  pretends  qu'  ils  s'  y  soumet- 

tent  sans  hesitation. 
II  ne  fiermet  pas  que  je  m'  en 

serve, 
Et  vous  soiiffrez    qu'    il    vous 

ecrive  I 
V   exige    qu'    il    vous   obeisse 

com  me  amoi. 
J'  ap/irouve  qu'  il  le  lui  defende, 

Je  suis  fdche  8c  surf  iris  qu'  il 

soit  venu. 
J'  ignore  qu'  il  ait  vc(^\x  votre 

lettre. 


I  nvill  have  him  to  refiair  there 

immediately. 
I  doubt  that  he  ivill  go  there. 
Let  us  sufifiose  that  the  fleet  be 

beaten,  what  will  become  of 

the  invaders  ? 
I  pretend  that  they  should  sub- 
mit to  it  without  hesitation. 
He  does   not  permit  I   should 

make  use  of  it. 
And  you  do  suffer  him  to  nvrite 

to  you  ! 
I  require   that  he  should  obey 

you  as  well  as  me. 
I  approve  he  should  forbid  it  to 

him. 
I  am  sorry  8c  surprised  thai  he 

is  come. 
I  do  not  know  that  he  has  re> 

ceived  your  letter. 


Observe,  that  some  of  the  Verbs  called  Impersonals^ 
govern  also  the  Subjundlive  mood. 

EXAMPLES. 


llfaut  qu'  elle  le  sac  he  un  jour 

ou  r  autre. 
Faut-W    que    je    sorte  sur   le 

champ  ? 
II  faudra  bien  que  vous  cnpas- 

siez  par  la. 
II  vaut  mieux  que  vous  vous  y 

trouviez, 
II  vaudra   mieux    que  vous  y 

consentiez, 
II  convient  que  vous  lui  disiez 

votre  fci9on  de  penser. 
11  importe   fort  que  vous  1'  en 

preveniez, 
II  est  necessaire   qu'    il    fanse 

sembUnt  de  1'  ignorer. 


She  must  knonv  it  one  day  or 

other. 
Must  I  go  out  immediately  ? 

It  ivill  be  necessary  for  you  to 

abide  by  it  or  to  submit  to  it. 

It  is  better  you  should  be  there. 

It  ivill  b£  better  you  should  con- 

sent  to  it. 
It  becomes  you  to  tell  him  your 

mind. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  consequence 

you  should  inform  him  of  it. 
It  is  necessary   that  he   shoidd 

pretend  to  be  ignpraut  of  it. 


^ 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


371 


II  est  surfirenant  qu'  elle  sc  sx)it 

mariee. 
II  est  douteux  qu'  il  en  vienne  a 

bout. 
II  est  fiossible  que  vous   1'  ob- 

t^niez, 
II  est  im/iossidle  qu'  on  \tpaije. 

II  est  a  profios  que  vous  1' 
avertissiez» 

II  semble  (without  a  comple- 
ment) que  vous  n*  ayez  ja- 
mais rien  vu. 

II  est  juste  qu'  il  soit  rembourse 
de  toutes  ses  depenses. 


It  is  surlirising  that  she  should 

have  got  married. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  he  unll 

bring  it  about. 
It  is  possible  that  you  may   ob-^ 

tain  it. 
It   is  impossible    he   should    be 

paid. 
It   is  Jit    that    you  give  him 

iva7viing. 
It  seems  that  you   have  never 

seen  any  thing. 

It  is  Just  that  he  should  be 
reimbursed  for  all  his  ex- 
penses. 


N,  B.  Take  notice,  that  after  Verbs  which  express 
neither  doubt  nor  Jear,  but  which,  on  the  contrary,  an- 
nounce certitude^  persitasion^  &c.  in  a  word,  after  all  Verbs 
which  rather  belong  to  the  judgment,  understanding,  8cc. 
the  Conjunction  que  imposes  the  Indicative  form  on  the 
Verb  following. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  crois  qu'  il  y  est, 

'Jg  pense  qu'  il  s'  est  mepris. 

y  apprends  que  vous  lui  avez 

ecrit. 
Vous  jugez  que   cela  lui    ap- 

partitnt, 
II  affirmera  qu'  il  1'  a  vu. 
Je  dis^   yt    soutiens^   je  prouve 

que  cela  est  ainsi. 
Viparait  qu'  il  va  se  marier. 

II  sem.ble  (with  a  complement) 

a  un   aveugle    que   tout   est 

tenebreux. 
II  me  semble  qu'  il  est  nialade. 
II  y  a  apparence  que  vous   le 

recevrez  sous  peu. 
II  est  certain  qu'  il  a  perdu    le 

pari. 
II  est  vrai  qu'  il  a  teuii  ce  pro- 

pos. 

VOL.    II. 


I  believe. he  is  there. 

I  think-  he  is  mistaken. 

I  learn  that  you   have  written 

to  him. 
You  Judge   that    it  belongs  to 

him  or  her. 
He  will  affirm  that  he  sav)  him. 
I  saij^  9naintain^  prove  it  is  so. 

It  appears  he   is  going  to  be 

married. 
It  seems  to  a  blind  man  that  all 

is  dark. 

It  seems  to  me  that  he  is  sick. 
It  is  likely  that  you  vjill  receive 

it  before  long. 
It  is  certain  that  he  has  lost  the 

bet. 
It  /*  true  he  used  that  expres- 

si  on. 

hb 


372 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  V. 

Should  any  Verb  whatever  be  used  either  negatively  ot 
interrogatively^  que  always  imposes  the  Subjunctive  form 
on  it. 

EXAMPLES. 


PenseZ'Voua  qu*  il  fiarte  bien- 

tot? 
Non,  je  ne  crois  pas  qu'  il  le 

faBse^ 
On  ne  dit  pas    que    cela  soit 

ainsi. 
II  ne  par  ait  pas  que    vous  le 

connaiasiez* 
Est-il  siir  qu'  il  soit  exile  ? 

II  7C  est-pas  sur  qu'  il  revienyie 
cet  hiver. 

Y  a-t4l  apparence  qu*  elle  1' 
ait  jamais  aime  ? 

II  ne  semble  pas  qu'  elle  ait  ja- 
mais voulu  de  lui. 


Do  you  think  he  nmll  soon  set 

off? 
No,  I  dont  believe  he  nviU  do  it. 

They  do  not  say  that  it  is  so. 

It  dont  seem  that  you  knoiv  him. 

/*  it  sure  that  he  is  banish- 
ed ? 

It  is  not  certain  that  he  nvill 
come  back  this  winter. 

Is  it  likely  she  ever  lovedhim^ 

It  does  not  seem  that  she  ever 
would  have  him. 


It  is  worthy  of  observation,  tha.tque  sometimes  does  not 
govern  the  SubjunSlive,  even  after  a  Verb  used  interroga- 
tively with  a  negative »  This  deviation  from  the  above 
Rule,  requires  some  explan^ition. 

If  the  interrogation  expresses  either  dotcbt  or  uncertainty^ 
que  imposes  the  Subjunctive  on  the  Verb  following — But, 
if  the  interrogation  does  not  express  it,  the  Indicative  is  to 
be  used. 


EXAMPLES. 

Croyez-vous  que  Jean  est  a  la  campagne  ? 
Croyez-vous  que  Jean  soit  a  la  campagne  ? 
Ne  croyez-vous  pas  que  Jean  est  a  la  campagne  i" 
Ne  croyez-vous  pas  que  Jean  soit  a  la  campagne  t 

The  sense  of  the  j^r^i  phrase  is, 


Je  sais  que  Jean  est  a  la  cam- 
pagne ;  ne  croyez-vous  pas 
qu'  il  y  soit? 


I  know  that  John  is  in  the 
country  J  dont  you  believe 
he  is  ? 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


373 


That  of  the  second  is, 


Je  ne  sais  si  Jean  est  a  la  cam- 
pagne  ;  ppuvez-vous  me  V 
apprendre  ? 


I  dont  know  whether  John  be 
in  the  country  ;  can  you  in- 
form me  of  it  ? 


That  of  the  third  is, 


Jeanestcertainementdlacam-  I  John  is  certainly  in  the  coun- 
pagne  ;  pourquoinevoulez-  |  try  ;  why  wont  you  believe 
vous  pas  le  croire  ?  I      it  ^ 


That  of  the  fourth  is. 


Je  doute  que   Jean   soit  a  la 
campagne  ;  qu'  en  pensez- 


vous  r 


I  doubt  whether  John  be  in  the 
country  j  what  do  you  think 
of  it? 


One  may  plainly  see,  that  the  construction  ofsuchphrases 
as  those  depends  entirely  on  the  sense  which  is  intended 
by  the  person  who  speaks.  If  it  be  not  possible  to  judge 
of  it  by  the  preceding  discourse,  one  must  examine  whe- 
ther the  person  who  speaks,  be  not  in  douht^  then  que 
governs  the  Subjun6live :  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  persoij 
affirms^  the  Indicative  after  que  is  indispensable* 

In  order  to  guide  you  in  the  SubjimSlive^  (a  very  nice 
and  difficult  point  in  the  French  language),  we  shall  ob- 
serve, that,  whenever  the  Article  conjunctive  qui  serves  as 
a  link  to  ttvo  phrases,  the  first  of  which  we  shall  call^r/w- 
cipal^  and  the  second  complementary y  because  it  serves  to 
complete  the  thought  began  by  the  first,  it  is  necessary  to 
examine  whether  it  be  intended  to  express  something 
positive  or  determinate,  or,  on  the  contrary,  something 
dubious  or  indeter?Jiinate* 

In  the  first  instance,  the  Verb  of  the  complementary 
phrase  must  be  expressed  in  the  Indicative;  and  in  th^ 
second,  it  must  be  expressed  in  the  Subjunclive. 


>r4 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


The  following  phra'ses  will  completely  establish  and  fix 
your  ideas  on  that  head. 

PHRASES  EXPRESSING  SOMETHING  PO^iT/r^. 

Je  lui  donnerai  des  raisons  qui /lourront  le  conVaincre. 

Je  veux  epouser  une  fcmme  qui  me  /iknt  infiniment. 

J'  aspire  a  une  chari^e  qui  est  agrealjle. 

Montrez-moi  le  chemin  qui  conduit  a  Philadelphie. 

Donnez-moi  le  raouchoir  qui  est  blanc. 

Preferez  ces  expressions  ou  la  naivete  est  unie  a  la  clartc. 

PHRASES  EXPRESSING  SOMETHING  DOUBTFUL. 

Je  lui  donnerai  des  raisons  qui  puissent  le  convaincre, 

Je  veux  epouser  une  femme  qui  me  plaise  infiniment. 

J'  aspire  a  une  charge  qui  coit  agreable. 

Montrez-moi  un  chemin  qui  cojididse  a  Piladelphie. 

Donnez-moi  un  mouchoir  qui  soit  blanc. 

Preferez  des  expressions  ou  la  naivete  soit  unie  a  la  clarte. 

Master. 
As  it  is  important  you  should  know  what  tense  of  the 
Subjunctive  to   use,    in    French,   in   the    complementary 
phrase,  I  desire  you  to  fix  your  attention  on  the  follow- 
ing rules. 

RULE  VI. 

When  the  Verb  of  the  principal  phrase  is  expressed  in 
the  present  or  future  of  the  Indicative^  that  of  the  comple- 
mentanj  phrase  must  be  in  the  present  of  the  Subjunctive, 
if  it  be  meant  to  express  a  present  or  a  future, 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  crains  qu'  elle  ne  vicnnc 
WJaut  que  vous  passicz  chcz 

lui. 
II   craindra  qu'  elle  ne  s'  en 

afieri^oive* 
Wfaudra  que  vous  \\x\  parliez. 


\fear  lest  she  should  come. 
You  wust  call  upon  him. 

lie  ivill  fear  that  she   should 

take  notice  of  it. 
It  Toill  be  necessary  for  you  to 

speak  to  him. 


RULE  VIL 

Though  the  Verb  of  the  pi  incipal  phrase  be  in  the  pre- 
sent or  future  of  the  Indicative^  yet  the  Verb  of  the  com- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


375 


pkmentnry  phrase,  if  it  be  intended  to  express  a  past^ 
must  be  in  the  Subjunctive  past^  instead  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive present^  as  above. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'  il  ait   eu 

autant  de   succes   qu'  il  le 

dit. 
On  ne  me  persuadera  jamais 

qu'  il  ait  apfiris  le  ^Frangais 

en  si  peu  de  tems. 


I  dont  believe  he  has  had  as 
much  success  as  he  says. 

Nobody  will  ever  persuade  me 
he  has  learned  French  in  so 
short  a  time. 


RULE  VIIL 

Though  the  first  Verb  of  the  complementary^  phrase  be 
in  the  present^  the  second  is  put  in  the  Present  Anterior^ 
or  Past  Anterior  of  the  Subju?ictive,  when  some  condition 
expressed  follows  it. 

EXAMPLES. 


Crot/e^z-vous  qu'  ils  me  refu- 
sasscnt,  si  je  les  en  priais  ? 

II  ii'  est  point  d'  horn  me  qui 
ne  fut  iY^s-ynortife,  s'  il  sa- 
vait  tout  ce  qu'  on  pcnse  de 
lui. 

Je  doute  que  votre  frere  eut  re- 
ussiy  sans  votre  secours. 


Je  siiis  persuade  qu'  il  ne  s'  en 
fut  jamais  tire,  sans  1'  eritre- 
mise  de  son  ami. 


Do  you  think  they  would  refuse 
me,  if  I  should  beg  it  of 
them  ? 

There  is  no  man  that  woidd 
woi/eel  very  much  mortified^ 
were  he  to  know  all  what 
people  think  of  him. 

I  doubt  whether  your  brother 
would  have  succeeded,  had 
it  not  been  for  your  assist- 
ance. 

I  am  persuaded  that  he  would 
never  have  extricated  him- 
self, had  it  not  been  for  the 
interference  of  his  friend. 


RULE  IX. 

When  the  tense  of  the  Verb  of  the  principal  phrase  is 
no  longer  in  the  present  of  the  Indicative,  but  either  in  the 
Present  Anterior,  the  Present  Anterior  Periodical,  or 
any  of  the  two  first  pasts  of  that  mood,  or  the  co7iditional^ 
then  the  Verb  of  the  complementary  phrase  must  be  put 


nre 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


in  the  Present  Anterior  of  the  Subjunctive^  if  it  be  intend- 
ed to  speak  of  futurity. 


EXAMPLES. 


Je  voulais 
Je  voulus 
J'  ai  voulu 

J' aval s  voulu 

Je  YQudrais 

J*  eusse  \"ouKi 


que  vous  par- 
[>   tissiez    avant 
lui. 


Je  craignais 
J'    ai   craint, 
Sec.  J 


que  vous  ne 
vinssiez  trop 
tot. 


I  was  willing 

I  have   been 

wilUng 
I  had  been  wil- 
ling 
I    should    be 

willing 
I  might  have 
beenv/illing 
I  was  afraid 
I   have   been 
afraid,  Sec 


that  you  irdght 
set  q^  before 
him. 


lest  you  should 
come  too 

soon. 


But  should  we  wish  to  express  an  idea  of  time  pastj 
while  the  Verb  of  the  principal  phrase  remains  in  either 
of  the  tenses  just  noticed,  the  Verb  of  the  complementary 
phrase  must  be  put  in  the  Fast  Anterior  of  the  Subjiinc- 
five, 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  ne  croyais  pas — Je  n'  ai  pas 
cru,  Sec.  qu'  elle  etlt  chante 
la  veille. 

J'^vais  craint  qu'  ils  n'  eussent 
pas.  voulu  y  consentir,  avant 
que  j'  eusse  rei^u  leur  lettre. 


have  not 

had  sung" 


I  did  not  believe — I 
believed  that  she 
the  day  before. 

I  have  been  afraid  lest  they 
should  have  refused  to  con- 
sent to  it,  before  I  received 
their  letter. 


Master. 

I  have  not  given  you  a  list  of  the  Conjunctions  that  im- 
pose the  Subjunctive  form  on  the  Verb  which  they  pre- 
cede, as  it  would  be  repeating  what  has  been  said  already 
in  the  Conversation  on  the  Conjunction^  to  which  I  refer  you. 

Though  this  instruction,  on  the  Subjunctive^  will  appear 
to  some  very  extensive,  yet,  I  must  tell  you,  that  I  am 
far  from  believing  that  the  subject  has  been  completely 
exhausted  ;  several  more  exceptions  might  have  been  no- 
ticed, and  perhaps  new  rules  discovered;  but,  as  the  cases 
which  they  embrace  are  not  common,  I  trust  that  custom, 
acquired  b)^  reading  good  authors,  will  acquaint  you  with 
those  niceties,  which  are  peculiar  to  the  French  language. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


s7r 


INSTRUCTION   THE   SIXTEENTH. 


Of/  THE  COMPLEMENT  OF  VERBS. 


RULE  I. 

ABive  Verbs,  such  as  aimer,  estimer^  &c.  require  the 
word  representing  the  object  to  which  the  action  is  extend- 
ed, (and  such  as  we  call  its  complement^  as  it  is  necessary 
to  complete  the  sense)  to  be  united  to  them  without  the 
intervention  of  a  Preposition. 


y  admire  le  genie  de    Shak- 

spear. 
Aimez-vous  les  legumes  Sc  les 

fruits  ? 


EXAMPLES. 

I  admire  Shakspear's  genius. 
Do  you  like  greens  and  fraits  ? 


RULE  IL 

When  Ailive  Verbs  have  txuo  complements  instead  of 
one,  the  one  which  is  the  obje5l  of  the  action  they  express, 
may  be  called  direct,  and  is  placed  immediately  before  xh^ 
Verb,  when  it  is  a  Pronoun,  or  immediately  after,  when 
it  is  a  Noun:  the  second,  which  may  be  called  indireSl, 
is  expressed  either  by  a  Preposition  and  its  Noun  which 
follows  immediately  the  first  complement  of  the  Verb,  or 
by  a  Pronoun  (before  which  the  Preposition  a  is  under- 
stood) which  precedes  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Tout  le   monde    accuse    cette 

femme  d'  un  crime. 
Tout  le  monde   /'  accuse  du 

crhrte. 
Le  maitre  pardonne   la  faute 

a  /'  Scalier. 
Le   maitre   hit    pardonne    sa 

fame. 


Every  body  accuses  that  «'o- 

man  of  a  crime. 
Every  body    accuses     her    of 

the  crime. 
The  master  forgives   the  fault 

to  the  scholar. 
The    master  forgi^'es  him  his 

fault. 


378 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Master. 

You  have  probably  already  taken  notice,  that  the  com- 
plement indlrefl  of  some  Verbs,  is  formed  with  the  Pre- 
position de  and  its  complement^  while  that  of  others  is 
formed  with  the  Preposition  a  and  its  complement.  In 
order  to  prevent  you  from  falling  into  an  error  concern- 
ing the  proper  Preposition  to  be  used,  you  will  find  here- 
to subjoined  a  list  of  the  principal  Verbs  which  require 
the  Preposition  de  &c.  after  them ;  and  of  those  which, 
on  the  contrary,  demand  the  Preposition  a  &c. 

You  will  exercise  yourself  on  them  by  forming  phrases 
of  your  own  coining,  which  will  insure  you  a  facility  and 
readiness  in  using  the  true  Preposition. 


A  LIST  OF  ACTIVE  VERBS  WHICH   REQUIRE  DE  BEFORE 
THEIR  COMPLEMENT  INDIRECT, 


Absoudre^ 

Accahler^ 

Accepter^ 

Accuser^ 

Avertir, 

Bannir^ 

Bldmer^ 

Chasser^ 

Corriger^ 

Debusquery 

DegoHtcry 

Delivrer-f 

Detourner^ 

Dissuader, 


to  absolve, 
to  overwhelm, 
to  accept, 
to  accuse, 
to  warn, 
to  banish, 
to  blame, 
to  expel, 
to  correct, 
to  drive  out. 
to  disgust, 
to  free, 
to  divert, 
to  dissuade. 


Enfreindrc^ 

Exclure^ 

Jixpulscr-f 

Flechir^ 

Implorer^ 

Informer^ 

Louevy 

Menacery 

Obteniry 

Priver^ 

Recevoivy 

Soup^on?ier» 


to  fill. 

to  transgress, 
to  exclude, 
to  turn  out. 
to  move, 
to  implore, 
to  inform, 
to  praise, 
to  threaten, 
to  obtain, 
to  deprive, 
to  receive, 
to  suspect. 


A  LIST  OF  ACTIVE  VERBS   WHICH  REQUIRE  A   BEFORE 
THEIR  COMPLEMENT  INDIRECT 


Accordevy 

to  grant. 

Covjicr, 

to  trust. 

Adresser, 

to  direct. 

Conseillevy 

to  advise. 

Aniioncery 

to  announce. 

Declarer^ 

to  declare. 

Apfmrtevy 

to  bring. 

Dedler, 

to  dedicate 

Atlribuery 

to  attribute. 

Demandti'y 

to  ask. 

Avoucvy 

to  own. 

Devoir^ 

to  OAve. 

Conununijuer-) 

to    communi- 

Dire, 

to  tell. 

cate. 

DonneVy 

to  give. 

Ccnjcsser, 

to  confess. 

Ecrire^ 

to  write. 

SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


'  37a 


Enseigner^ 

to  teach. 

Promettre^ 

to  promise. 

Envoyer^ 

to  send. 

Raconter, 

to  relate. 

Exfiliquer, 

to  explain. 

Rapfiorter, 

to  bring  back. 

Oter, 

to  take  2£way. 

Refuser^ 

to  refuse. 

Pardonner, 

to  forgive.      ' 

Rendre^ 

to  return. 

Predire^ 

to  foretell. 

Renvoyevy 

to  send  back. 

Preferer, 

to  prefer. 

R6j[i6ter, 

to  repeat. 

Presenter^ 

to  present. 

Refirocher^ 

to  reproach. 

Preterm 

to  lend. 

Reveler, 

to  reveal. 

Procurer^ 

to  proc\ire. 

Fendre, 

to  sell. 

RULE  III. 

When  the  Verb  etre  is  joined  to  the  past  Participle  of 
an  aSlive  Verb,  and  any  complement  follows,  it  is  generally 
composed  of  the  Preposition  de  and  its  complement. 

EXAMPLES. 

He  is  esteemed  by  all  men  of 
probity. 

She  is  beloved  by  all  her  rela- 
tions. 


II  est  estime  de  tous  les  gens 
de  bien. 

Elle  est  cherie  de  tous  ses  pa- 
rens. 


Observe,  that  the  Preposition  par  (by)  is  generally  used 
in  speaking  of  physical  actions. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  a  ete  tue  par  des  voleurs  de 

grand  chemin. 
La  ville  fut  pillee  par  les  sol- 

dfits. 


He  was  killed  by  highway- 
men. 

The  city  was  pillaged  by  the 
soldiers. 


However,  par^  though  used  after  Verbs  expressing 
physical  actions,  should  be  used  after  Verbs  expressing 
the  actions  of  the  mind^  when  an  adverbial  phrase  or  an 
Adverb  has  been  previously  used. 


EXAMPLE. 

Je  m'  attends  que  mon  ouv- 
rage  sur  fa  vi*aie  maniere 
d'  enseignerl^lesJ^  langues, 
sera  critiqii'^  avec  acharne- 
ment  par  les  maitres  qui 
sont  servilement  attaches 
aux  vieilles  routines,  qu*  ils 
ont  la  bonte  de  regarder 
comme  autant  de  methodes 
d'  instruction. 
VOL.  II.  c  c  c 


I  expect  that  my  work  on  the 
true  manner  of  learning  the 
languages,  will  be  criticised 
ivith  fury  by  the  masters 
who  are  servilely  attached 
to  ancient  rotes,  which  they 
are  good  enough  to  consider 
as  so  many  methods  of  in- 
struction. 


uo 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


A  LIST  OF  STAT'IONART  VERBS  WHICH  SHOULD  BE  FOL- 
LOWED BY  A  AND  ITS  COMPLEMENT. 


Afijilaudir^ 

Consentir, 

Contrevenir, 

ContribueVy 

Dejilaire, 

Desobeir, 

Insulier, 

Obeir, 

Obvier, 

Fardonnery 

Parvenir, 

Fenser, 


to  applaud, 
to  consent, 
to  infringe, 
to  contribute, 
to  displease, 
to  disobey, 
to  insult, 
to  hurt, 
to  obey, 
to  obviate, 
to  forgive, 
to  attain, 
to  think  of. 


Persuader, 

Plaire, 

Renoncer, 

Rerfiedier, 

Ressembler, 

Sesister, 

Rever, 

Sanger, 

Subvenir, 

Succeder, 

Survivre, 

Travailler, 


to  persuade, 
to  please, 
to  renounce, 
to  remedy, 
to  resemble, 
to  resist, 
to  dream, 
to  think  of. 
to  relieve, 
to  succeed, 
to  outlive, 
to  work. 


A  LIST  OF  SUCH  REFLECTED  VERBS  AS  REQUIRE  THE 
PREPOSITION  A  AND  ITS  COMPLEMENT. 


S^  abandonner,  to    abandon 

one's  self, 
accustom 

one's  self. 
S^  adonner,        to  addict  one's 

self. 
S*amusei',  to  amuse  one's 

self. 
S'  apfdiquer,     to   apply  one's 

self. 
«S'  attendre,       to  hope  for. 
.S'  apfireter,      to  dispose  one's 

self. 
«S'  arreter,         to  stop. 
*S'  attacher,       to  stick  to. 
<S'  adresser,       to  apply  one's 

self. 


Se  determiner,  to  resolve  upon. 
Se  disposer,     to  prepare  one's 

self. 
S*  endurcir,    to    inure    one's 

self. 
S'  engager,     to  engage. 
5'  exfioser,      to  expose  one's 

self. 
Sejier,  to  trust. 

6"  habituer,    to  accustom 

one's  self. 
jS"  obstiner,     to  be  obstinately 

resolved. 
S*  ofiinidtrer,  to  be  obstinate. 
iS"  occufier,      to  employ  one's 

self. 
<S'  opjioaei',      to  oppose  one's 

self. 


OBSERVATION. 


"With  regard  to  the  remainder  of  refie  fled  Verbs  (w^hich 
form  a  more  numerous  class  than  the  above)   when  they 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


381 


should  have  a  counplement^  they  require  the  Preposition  de 
and  its  complement. 

EXAMPLES. 


Croyez-vous  qu'   il  se  repente 

de  sa  faute  ? 
II  se  prevaut  de  vos  bontes. 

II  ne  s'  apergoit  pas  du  tour  qu' 

on  lui  joue. 
Vous  ressouvenez-vous  de  cet- 

te  anecdote  ? 


Dou  you  believe  that  he  rcr 
pentso/'his  fault? 

He  takes  advantage  of  your 
kindnesses* 

He  does  not  perceive  the  trick 
which  is  played  upon  him. 

Do  you  remember  this  anec- 
dote ? 


OBSERVATION. 


When  the  Verb  jouer  is  intended  to  signify  to  play  oa 
some  musical  instruments,  it  is  necessary  it  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  Preposition  de ;  but  when  it  is  intended  to 
signify  to  play  at  some  game^  it  requires  the  Preposi- 
tion a. 


EXAMPLES. 


Ma  sceur  joue  de  la  guitare,  de 
la  harpe,  &  du  forte-piano  ; 
&  mon  frere  joue  de  la  flute, 
du  violon,  &  de  la  clarinette. 

y  aime  mieux  jouer  aux  car- 
tes qu'  a  la  boule,  aux  quil- 
les,  au  palet  ou  a  la  paume. 


My  sister  plays  on  the  guitar, 
the  harpsichord  and  piano- 
forte ,•  and  my  brother  plays 
on  the  flute,  the  violin,  and 
the  clarionet. 

I  had  rather  play  at  cards  than 
at  bowls,  nine-pinS)  quoits 
or  at  tenis. 


383  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  SEVENTEENTH. 


o^r  THE  iJVFimTirE. 


Master. 


French  Infinitives  may  be  preceded  by  either  of  the 
Prepositions  de,  a,  pour^  or  sans^  as  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing rules. 

RULE  I. 

The  Preposition  de  is  used  before  the  Infinitive  of  Verbs 
in  the  following  cases. 

1st,  When  the  Injinitive  is  preceded  by  a  Houn  that 
demands  de  after  it. 


EXAMPLES. 


Croyez-vous  qu*   il   ait  eu  le 

terns  d'  y  aller  ? 
II  est  sur  le  point  de  mourir. 

Je  ne  1'  ai  point  trouve  en  etat 
de  faire  une  si  longue  route. 


Do  you  believe  he  had  time  to 

go  there  ? 
He  is  on  the  point  o/*  death,  or 

very  near  dying. 
I  did  not  iind  him  in  a  state  to 

perform  so  long  a  journey. 


2d,  Before  the  Infinitive  of  Verbs  to  which  are  join- 
ed certain  Nouns  without  an  Article^  of  which  a  list  of  the 
Principal  was  given  in  treating  of  the  Article. 


EXAMPLES. 


N'  avez-vous  pas  envie  de  faire 
un  petit  tour  de  promenade  ? 
Prenez  garde  de  lui  deplaire. 


Have  you  not  a  mind  to  take  a 

little  walk  ? 
Take  care  to  displease  him,  or 

her. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  S83 

3d,  Before  the  Infinitive  of  a  Verb  preceded  by  the 
Verb  etre^  to  be,  and  the  greatest  number  of  French  Ad- 
jectives. 

EXAMPLES. 


Qu'  il  est  heureux  de  ne  pas 
etre  oblige  de  travailler  ! 

II  est  incapable  de  faire  tort  a 
qui  que  ce  soit. 

Je  suis  las  de  vous  repeter  tou- 
jours   la  meme  chose. 


How  happy   he 

obliged  to  work  1 
He  is  incapable   of  wronging 

any  body  whatever. 
I  am  tired  q/"  repeating  always 

the  same  thing  to  you. 


4th,  Before  the  Infinitive  of  a  Verb  following  any  of 
the  Verbs  mentioned  in  the  preceding  Instruction^  with 
de^  &c.  foT  their  ccmplement. 

We  trust  that  the  following  List  of  Verbs,  which  fre- 
quently occur  and  are  followed  by  ^e?  before  another  Verb 
in  the  Infinitive^  may  be  of  service  to  you. 


Accuser, 

Affecter, 

Avertir, 

Bldmer, 

Cesser, 

Commander, 

Coniurer, 

Conseiller, 

Craindre, 

Detourner, 

Defendre, 

Differer, 

Dire, 

Disfienser, 

Dissuader, 

Ecrire, 

Empecher, 

Enjoindre, 

Entrep-rendre, 

Essayer, 

Feindre, 

Finir, 

Mcnacer, 


to  accuse, 
to  affect, 
to  advise* 
to  blame, 
to  cease, 
to  command, 
to  intreat. 
to  advise, 
to  fear, 
to  deter, 
to  forbid, 
to  differ, 
to  tell, 
to  excuse, 
to  dissuade, 
to  write, 
to  hinder, 
to  enjoin, 
to  undertake, 
to  try. 
to  feign, 
to  finish, 
to  threaten. 


Meriter, 

JVe^lig-er, 

Offrir, 

Omettre, 

Ordonner, 

Oublicr, 

Parler, 

Permettre, 

Persuader, 

Plaindre, 

Prescire, 

Presser, 

Prier, 

Promettre, 

Proposer, 

Refuser, 

RefTiercier, 

Resoudre, 

Sommer, 

Sou/iconner, 

Su/ijilier, 

Tdchers 


to  deserve, 
to  neglect, 
to  offer, 
to  omit, 
to  order, 
to  forget, 
to  speak, 
to  permit, 
to  persuade, 
to  pity, 
to  prescribe, 
to  urge, 
to  pray, 
to  promise, 
to  propose, 
to  refuse, 
to  thank, 
to  resolve, 
to  summon, 
to  suspect, 
to  beg. 
to  endeavour. 


f ;'  It  is  proper  to  observe,  that,  in  general  whenever  in- 

stead of  the  Preposition  to  with  the  Infinitive,  in  English, 
either  of  the   Prepositions  of,  from,  by  or  with,  and  the 


184 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Participle  present  are  used,  the   French  make   use  of  de 
and  the  Infinitive  of  the  corresponding  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Finissez  de  jouer. 

II  m*  a  empeche  de  V  acheter. 


Make  an  end  0/ playing. 
He  prevented  va^from  buying 
it. 
II  est  accuse  de  V  avoir  assas-  |  He  is  charged  ivith  murdering 


sine. 


hun. 


RULE  IL 

The  Preposition  h  is  generally  put  before  an  Infinitive. 
1st,  Ahtr  Adje^ives  denoting  aptness^  fitness,  unfitness^ 
incUnation,  repugnancijj  and  particularly  after  the  follow- 
ing. 


Jdroit, 

dexterous  in. 

Enclin, 

inclined  to. 

Affreux, 

dreadlnl  to. 

Exact,     . 

exact  in. 

Agr  cable  ^ 

agreeable  to. 

Facile, 

easy  to. 

Jise, 

easy  to. 

Habile, 

skilful  in. 

Ardent^ 

eager  in. 

Lent, 

slow  in. 

Assidu, 

assiduous  in. 

Forte, 

inclined  to. 

Beau, 

fine  to. 

Le  Fremier, 

the  first  to. 

JBOtly 

good  to. 

Le  Dernier, 

the  last  to. 

Charinanty 

charming  to. 

Fret, 

ready  to. 

Curicuxy 

curious  to. 

Frompt, 

quick  in. 

Diligent, 

diligent  in. 

Siijet, 

liable  to. 

Disclose, 

disposed  to. 

Terrible, 

dreadful  to. 

Desagreable, 

disagreeable  to. 

2d,    The  following  Verbs  also  require  the  Infinitive 
with  a. 


Admettre, 

to  admit. 

Encowrager, 

to  encourage 

Accoutumer, 

to  accustom. 

Engager, 

to  engage. 

Aider, 

to  help. 

Exhorter, 

to  exhort. 

Aimer, 

to  like. 

Inviter, 

to  invite. 

Autoriser, 

to  authorise. , 

Fenser, 

to  think  of. 

Chercher, 

to  endeavour. 

Fersister, 

to  persist  in. 

Condamner, 

to  condemn. 

Forter, 

to  induce  to. 

Consister, 

to  consist. 

Fousscr, 

to  excite  to. 

Disfioser, 

to  dispose  to. 

Fester, 

to  stay. 

Donner, 

to  give. 

Travailler, 

to  work. 

Enrjiloyer, 

to  employ. 

SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


385 


RULE  III. 

The  Verbs  commencery  continuery  discontinuery  contram- 
dre^  engager,  s'  engager ^  exhorter^  forcer^  s*  efforcer^  man- 
finer^  obliger^  tdcher  &  tarder  require  the  Infinitive  with 
de  or  a,  as  may  be  most  agreeable  to  the  ear  or  to  the 
sense. 


A  peine  a-t-on  commence  a  vivre 
qu'  il  faut  songer  a  mourir. 

II  avait  commence  (T  ecrire  sa 
lettre  quand  je  suis  entre. 

Je  ne  pus  1'  emfiecher  de  conti- 
nuer  a  nous  debiter  ses  ex- 
travagances. 

II  voulut  continuer  de  faire 


guerre. 


EXAMPLES. 

Scarcely  has  one  begun  to  live 
than  one  must  think  of  dy- 
ing. 

He  had  begun  to  Avrite  his 
letter  when  I  entered. 

I  could  not  prevent  Ynm  from 
continuing  to  utter  his  ex- 
travagancies to  us. 

He  would  continue  to  carry  on 
the  war. 


la 


With  these  Verbs  they  use  a  especially,  to  avoid  the 
repetition  of  de ;  and  de  is  reciprocally  used,  to  avoid  the 
repetition  of  a  or  the  collision  of  several  vowels, — So  they 
will  say, 


II  commence  a  descendre  de 

sa  chambre. 
II  commencait  a  demander  de 

vos  nouvelles. 
II  avait  commence  de  changer 

de  conduite. 
II  me  for^a  c/'abandonner  cette 

entreprise. 
Cela  les  obligea  de  camper  a 

quelques  lieues  plus  loin. 


He  begins  to  come  down  from 
his  room. 

He  began  to  enquire  about 
you. 

He  had  begun  to  alter  his  con- 
duct. 

He  forced  me  to  abandon  this 
undertaking. 

That  obliged  them  to  encamp 
a  few  leagues  farther. 


N»  B.  II  commence  de  </^scendre — il  commencait  de 
^/emander,  de  &c.  would  produce  a  very  uncouth  and  bar- 
barous pronunciation. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1st,  When  commencer  signifies  to  begin  by^  it  is  follow- 
ed by  par* 

EXAMPLE. 


Assezde  gens  sem^lent  de  re- 
former le  monde;  maispres- 
que  personne  ne  commence 
par  se  reformer  soi-meme. 


People  enough  meddle  with 
reforming  the  world  ;  but 
almost  nobody  begins  by  re- 
forming himself. 


385  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

2d,  The  Verbs  engager^  s'  engager^  exhorter^  are  more 
often  constraed  with  a, 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  1'  ai  engag6  a  venir  nous 

voir. 
II   s'  engage  a  descendre  le 

premier. 


I  invited  him  to  come  and  see 

us. 
He  .engages    to   come   down 

first. 


Hovt^ever,  de  may  be  used  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  a 
or  the  collision  of  several  vowels, 

3d,  iS'  efforcer^  when  it  signifies  to  make  use  of  all  one'^s 
strength,  or  to  strain,  requires  the  Preposition  a  before 
the  next  Infinitive. 

EXAMINEE. 

II  s*  est  efforce  d  courir.  |  He  strove  to  run. 

But  when  it  signifies  to  endeavour,  to  make  use  of  one'' ^ 
industry,  it  requires  the  Preposition  de* 

EXAMPLE. 


Chacun  doit  s'  efforcer  de  croi- 
tre  en  sagesse. 


Every  one  ought  to  endeavour 
to  grow  in  wisdom. 


4th,  The  Verb  manquer  requires  the  Preposition  de 
when  it  is  used  negatively,  or  when  it  signifies  to  be  near, 
to  have  like. 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  malheureux  n'  out  jamais 
manque  dc  se  plaindre. 

Je  manquai  de  tomber— c/c  me 
casser  le  bras. 


The   unfortunate  have  never 

failed  to  complain. 
I  had   like    to    fall — to  break 

my  arm. 


But  manquer  without  a  negative,  is  commonly  construed 
with  a. 

EXAMPLE. 

J'  ai  manque  a  faire  ce  que  je  I  I  failed  doing  what  I  had  pro- 
vous  avais  promi*.  |      mised  you. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  387 

5th,  When  tdcher  signifies  to  aim^  it  requires  the  Pre- 
position d  before  the  Infinitive. 


Vous  tachez  a  m'  embarras 

ser. 
II  tache  d  me  nuire. 


EXAMPLES. 

You  aim  to  puzzle  me. 
He  aims  to  hurt  me. 


But,  when  that  Verb  signifies  to  endeavour^  to  use  one*s 
utmost  endeavours^  it  requires  the  Preposition  de» 

EXAMPLE. 


Je  tacherai  de  vous  faire  ob- 
tenir  ce  que  vous  desirez  si 
ardemment. 


I  will  endeavour  to  make  you 
obtain  what  you  so  ardently 
wish  for. 


6th,   Tarder^  when  it  means  to  tarry  ^  to  delai/  &c.  re- 
quires d, 

EXAMPLES. 


Ne  tardez  pas  d  revenir. 
Pourquoi  tardez-vous  d  y  al- 
ter ? 
II  ne  tarda  gueres  d  le  punir. 


Do  not  delay  coming  back- 
Why  do  you  delay  going  thi- 
ther ? 
He  did  not  long  put  off  his  pu- 
nishment. 


But,  if  it  signify  to  long^  it  requires  de,  and  is  used  im* 
personally  then,  only  in  the  third  person  singular  of  each 
tens^. 

EXAMPLES. 


U  me  tarde  de  revoir  mon  pays 

natal. 
II  nous  tardait  d'  arriver. 


I  long  to  see  my  native  coun- 
try. 
We  longed  to  arrive. 


RULE  IV. 


When  to  (the  sign  of  the  Infinitive)  is  used  to  denote 
the  end  or  design  for  which  a  thing  is  done,  and  in  gene- 
ral, every  time  to  can  with  equal  propriety  be  rendered 
VOL.  II.  ^  D  d  d 


188 


SYISTTAX  MADE  EASY. 


by  in  order  to,  it  is  translated,  in  French",  by  pour  placed 
before  the  Inpnitive. 


EXAMPLES. 


Les  honimes  sont  nes  pour 
s'  entr'  aimer  &c  s'  entr' 
aider. 

Je  suis  venu  pour  vous  voir. 

Je  ferai  tout  pour  vous  obliger. 

II  ne  1'  a  pas  dit  pour  vous 

faire  de  la  peine. 
Pour  etre  heureux,  il  faut  6tre 

content. 


Men   are   born    to    love   and 
help  one  another. 

I  came  to  (or  in  drder  to)  see 

you. 
I  will  do  every  thing  to  oblige 

you. 
He  did  not  say  so  to  make  you 

uneasy. 
To,   (or  in  order  to)  be  happy, 

one  must  be  contented. 


Observe,  that  after  the  words  assez,  trop,  suffire,  suffl- 
sant,  the  following  Verb  requires  pour  before  its  Infinitive. 


EXAMPLES. 


11  n'  est  pas  assez  sot  poi^r  y 

ajouter  foi. 
II  a  trop  d'  esprit  pour  se  fa- 

cher  d'  une  piaisanterie  in- 

nocente. 
Son  revenu  ne  suffit  pas  pour 

payer  ses  dettes. 
Trente  hommes  sont  suffisans 

pour  defendre  ce  pont. 


He  is  not  foolish  enough  to 
give  credit  to  it. 

He  has  too  much  understand- 
ing to  get  angry  at  an  inno- 
cent joke. 

His  income  does  not  suffice  to 
pay  his  debts. 

Thirty  men  are  sufficient  to  de- 
fend that  bridge. 


In  the  following  phrases  and  the  like,  the  Preposition 
de  must  be  used,  instead  of  pour,  after  the  above  words. 

EXAMPLES. 


Ce  sera  assez  de  ni'  en  ccrire. 

Ce  serait  trop,  en  verite,  de  le 
recevoir  d'  une  inaniere  si 
distinguee. 

11  siijpra  de  V  tU  prevcnir. 


It  will  be  enough  to  write  to 
me  about  it. 

It  would  be  too  much,  indeed, 
to  receive  him  in  so  distin- 
guished a  manner. 

It  will  suffice  to  forewarn  him, 
or  her. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


3B9 


In  the  following  phrases  and  the  like,  the  Preposition 
is  suppressed  before  the  Infinitive  following  the  words 
assez  &  trop» 

EXAMPLES. 


C  est  assez  danser,  en  verite. 
C*  etait  aussi  trc^i  exiger  d€ 
lui. 


It  is  dancing  enough^  indeed. 
It  was  though    requiring  too 
much  of  him. 


RULE  V.  • 

A  Verb  in  the  Participle  present^  in  English,  preceded 
by  without^  is  rendered,  in  French,  by  the  Infinitive  pre- 
ceded by  the  Preposition  sans.  x 

EXAMPLES. 


II  a  bu  tout  son  vin    sans    y 

mettre  de  1'  eau. 
II  paile  souvent  saris  savoir  ce 

qu'  il  dit. 


He  di^nk  all  his  wine  toiihrnt 

/tutting  water  in  it. 
He  often  speaks  ivithout  knoiv- 

ing  what  he  says. 


NoTE....That  for^  coming  before  a  Participle  present^ 
in  English,  is  translated  by  pour^  with  the  Infinitive  pre- 
sent of  the  Verb,  if  it  has  reference  to  a  present  or  a  fu- 
ture time  ;  or  the  Injinitive  past^  if  it  has  reference  to  a 
past  time. 

EXAMPLES. 


Combien  me    demandez-vous 

pour  Tcmfaire  un  habit  ? 
II  fut  pendu  pour  avoir  vole. 


How  much   do    you    ask  /or 
making  me  a  suit  of  clothes  ? 
He  was  hanged  ^br  robbing. 


RULE  VL 

These  Verbs  admit  of  no  Prepositions  after  them,  be- 
fore the  Injinitive  of  the  succeeding  Verbs. 


Aller, 

to  go. 

Envoyer, 

to  send. 

Croire^ 

to  believe. 

Esperer, 

to  hope. 

Daigner^ 

to  deign. 

Faire, 

to  do. 

Declarer^ 

to  declare. 

Falloir, 

to  be  requisite 

Desirer^ 

to  wish. 

Laisser, 

to  let. 

Devoir, 

to  owe. 

Mer, 

to  deny. 

Entendre, 

to  hear. 

Oser, 

to  dare. 

390 

SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

Pavattrt^ 

to  appear. 

Souhaiter^ 

to  wish. 

Pretendre, 

to  pretend. 

Souteniry 

to  maintain* 

Pouvoir^ 

to  be  able. 

Feni?', 

to  come. 

Savoir^ 

to  know. 

Voir, 

to  see. 

Sembkry 

to  appear. 

Vouloir, 

to  be  willing. 

I  will  observe  here,  that  the  Infinitive  Is  also  often  sub- 
stantively used,  without  being  acted  upon  by  a  Preposi- 
tion^ as  appears  by  the  following  phrases,  whereon  it  re- 
presents a  Noun  as  subject  of  the  Proposition, 


EXAMPLES. 


Mentir  (le  mensonge)  est  in- 
digne  d'  un  galant  homme. 

Trop  parkr  (trop  de  paroles) 
TiUit  souvfent. 

Jimer  (1'  amour  de)  notre  pro- 
chain  est  notre  premier  de- 
voir. 

Lire  (la  lecture)  est  une  occu- 
pation utile. 


To  lye,  or  lying  is  unworthy  of 

a  gentleman. 
To  speak   too    much  is   often 

hurtful. 
To  love  Olio's  neighbour  is  one's 

first  duty. 

To  read  is  an  useful  occupa- 
tion. 


I  conclude  by  observing,  that  the  French  language  de- 
rives a  gi'eat  deal  of  beauty  and  elegance  from  the  man- 
ner in  which  this  tense  is  applied,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
following  elegant  verses  from  Bajazet,  one  of  Racine's 
tragedies,  in  which  Prince  Bajazet  clears  himself  of  Pox- 
ana's  reproach  of  ingratitude. 


"  Deja  plein  d*  un  amour,  des  I'  enfance  form6, 
A  tout  autre  desir  mon  cceur  etait  ferme ; 
Vous  me  vintez  oj[frir,  et  la  vie,  et  1'  empire  ; 
Et  meme  votrc  amour,  si  j'  ose  vous  le  dire, 
Consultant  vos  bienfeits,  les  crut,  et,  sur  leur  foi, 
De  tous  mes  scntimens  vous  repondit  pour  moi. 
Je  connus  votre  erreur;  mais  que  pouvais-jcya/r(?.<^ 
Je  vis,  en  meme  terns,  qu'  elle  vous  etait  chere. 
Combien  le  trone  tente  un  coeur  ambitieux  ! 
Un  si  noble  present  me  fit  ouvrir  les  yieux. 
Je  cheris,  j'  acceptai,  sans  parler  davantage, 
-X.'  heureuse  occasion  de  ^ortir  d'  esclavage, 
D'  autant  plus  qu'  il  fallait  1'  accepter  owperir  : 
D'  autant  plus  que  vous-memc,  ardente  a  me  1'  offrir, 

\ 


SYNTAX  MADE  lEASY.  591 

Vous  ne  craigniez  rieii  tant  que  jd'  etre  refiisee  ; 

Que  meme  mes  refus  vous  auraient  exposee  ; 

Qu'  apres  avoir  ose  me  voir  &  me  parlevy 

II  etait  daiigereux  pour  vous  de  reculer. 

Cependant  je  n'  en  veux  pour  temoins  que  vos  plaintes, 

Ai-je  pu  vous  tromfier  par  des  promesses  feintes  ?" 


INSTRUCTION  THE  EIGHTEENTH. 


REMARKS  ON  COMPLEMENTS. 


FIRST. 

IN  order  that  a  complement  may  be  under  the  depen- 
dence of  several  words,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  every  one  of  the  latter  should  require  the  same 
kind  oi  complement ;  thus  one  may  say, 

Ne  voyez  que  les  personnes  qui  vous  estiment ;  les  autres 
jne  vous  entourent  que  pour  connattre  &  publier  vos  defauts. 

Je  serai  docile  8c  Jidele  a  vos  oi*dres. 
11  se  plaint  &c  s'  ennidc  de  tout. 

because  connaitre  and  publier  both  govern  in  2Ldirect  man-* 
ner  j — ^because  docile  and  fidele  require  equally  the  Prepo- 
sition d — and  se  plaindre  and  5'  ennuyer  the  Preposition  d6* 

But  one  cannot  say, 

C  est  par  la  vertu  qu'  on  chei-it  8c  qu'  on  dent  a  ses  devoirs 

sans  effort. 
C  est  par  la  vertu  qu'  on  ainie  8c  qu*  on  se  pluU   dans  ses 

sacrifices. 
Je  fus  trcs-sensible  Sc  trts-mecontent  de  ce  procede. 

because  one  cannot  say,  cherir  a  ses  devoirs,  as  one  says, 
tenir  d  ses  devoirs — aimer  dans  ses  sacrifices,  as,  se  plaire 
dans  ses  sacrifices — ^tres-sensible  de  ce  procede,  as,  tres- 
niecontent  de  ce  procede.     One  must,  in  that,  case,  have 


392  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

rec^rse  to  y  and  en  or  to  Pronouns  and  say,  for  in- 
stance : 

C  est  p*ar  la  vertu  qu'  on  cherit  ses  devoirs  &  qu'  on  y  tient 

sans  effort. 
C'  est  par  la  vertu  qu'  on  se  plait  dans  ses  sacrifices  8c  qu'on 

les  aune, 
Je  fus  tvcs-sensible  a  ce  proc6de  Sc  j'  enfus  tr^s  mecontent. 

The  folloviring  phrase  is  incorrect. 

II  «'  est  trompe  lui-meme  &  tous  ceux  qui  1'  ont  cru. 

It  should  be  as  follows, 

II  6-'  est  trompe  Sc  a  trompe  avec  lui  tous  ceux  qui  1'  ont 
cru. 

because  the  Verb  etre  cannot  replace  the  Verb  avoir  in 
that  case. 

The  following  phrase  is  incorrect. 

II  se  vint  presenter  &  dire  qu*  il  n'  etait  point  coupable. 

It  should  be  as  follows, 

II  vint  se  presenter  Sc  dire  qu'  il  n'  etait  point  coupable. 

because  one  cannot  say,  il  se  vint  dire,  as  one  says,  il  se 
vint  presenter. 

The  following  phrase  is  incorrect. 

II  .V*  est  attire  1'  estime  publique  Sc  rendu  celebrc. 

It  should  be  as  follows, 

II  s'  est  attire  T  estime  publique  &  «'  est  rendu  celebre. 

because  se  meaning,  in  the  first  instance,  a  soi^  and  in  the 
second,  soi^  cannot  be  at  the  same  time  both  a  direct  and 
an  indiredl  complement. 

SECOND. 

When  the  same  word  has  several  particular  compkfnents 
coupled  together  by  a  ConjunSiion,   they   should  be  ex- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  393 

pressed  by  words  of  the  same  species  ;  hence  the  follow- 
ing modes  of  construction  are  incorrect, 

II  aime  le  jeu  Sc  a  danser, 

II  se  plait  au  spectacle  &  a  se  fir<xmener^ 

Je  crois  vos  raisons  bonnes  &  que  vous  le  convaincrez. 

They  should  be  thus, 

II  aime  le  jeu  8c  la  danse. 
II  se  plait  au  spectacle  &  a  /a  promenade. 
Je  crois  que  vos  raisons  sont  bonnes   &  que  vous  le  con- 
vaincrez. 

THIRD. 

When  a  word  has  several  different  complements^  the 
shortest  should  be  expressed  Jirst  ;  say, 

Le  terns  seul  assure  au  genie  dcs  hommages  Sc  des  parti- 
sans. 

Le  roi  ne  confie  pas  a  des  incrcdules  le  commandement  de 
ses  armees  &  de  ses  flottes. 

And  not, 

Le  tenis  seul  assure  des  hommages  Sc  des    partisans  au 

genie, 
Le  roi  ne  confie  pas  le  commandement  de  ses  armees  & 

de  ses  flottes  a  des  incredules. 

The  reason  of  this  mode  of  construction  is,  that,  if  the 
shortest  were  not  placed  first^  it  would  be  separated  from 
the  Verb  by  a  complement  expressed  by  many  words, 
which  would  weaken  the  connection  between  the  Verb  and 
the  shortest  complement  : — But,  should  the  complements 
be  of  equal  length,  the  direct  complement  comes  Jirst. 

II  faut  precher  la  di/igcnce   aux  paresseux    Sc  la  moderation 

aux  emportes. 
Le   roi  ne  confie  pas   le  commandement  de  ses  armees  a  des 

hommes  qui  sont  sans  religion. 


394 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  NINETEENTH. 


ON  THE  PARTICIPLE  PRESEJ^T, 

RULE  I. 

THE  Participle  present  is  always  indeclinable,  that  is  to 
say,  it  ends  invariably  in  ant,  whether  relating  to  a  Noun 
of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender,  or  to  a  Noun  singu- 
lar or  pluiraU 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  hommes  alliantlo.  courage  Men  uniting  courage  to  pru- 

a  la  prudence  sent  rares — Sc  dence  are  rare — and  women 

les    femmes   joignant     les  joining  the  graces   of  their 

graces  de  leur  sexe  aux  ver-  sex  to  the  virtues  and  talents 

tus  Sc  aux  talens  du  noire  of  ours  are  still  more  rare, 
sont  encore  plus  rares. 

"Et  c'  est  la  que  fui/ant  V  orgueil  du  diademe, 
Lasse  de  vains  honneurs  &  me  cherchant  moi-meme  j 
Aux  pieds  de  T  eternel  je  viens  m'  humilier.'* 

RULE  IL 

When  the  Participle  present  by  qualifying  an  object 
completes  a  Verb  at  the  same  time,  it  is  generally  preced- 
ed by  en,  which  answers  in  English  to  hij,  in,  oYwhilst» — 
The  Participle  present  is  a  complement  to  the  Verb,  when- 
ever it  expresses  a  means,  circumstance,  or  the  7node  of  the 
adlion  expressed  by  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Nou-s  avons  obtenu  la  paix  en 

fesant  de  grands  sacrifices. 
On  acquiert  plus  de  gloire  tn 

defendant   qu'  en   accusant 

ses  concitoyens. 
II  mourut  en  dejeunant. 
Diogene  dit,  un  j-our,  en  dinant 

avec  ses  amis  :  6  mes  amis ! 

il  n*  est  plus  d'  amis. 


We  have  obtained  peace  by 
nuiking  great  sacrifices. 

More  glory  is  acquired  by  de- 
fending than  by  accusing 
one's  fellow-citizens. 

He  died  in  eating  his  breakfast, 

Diogenes  said,  one  day,  ivhilst 
he  dined  with  his  friends  : 
O  my  friends  !  there  is  no 
longer  any  friend. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  >     3^^ 

"  Des  trompeuses  grandeurs  le  sage  se  console : 
En  cultivant  en  paix  les  arts,  la  verite, 
11  ennoblit  son  etre  &  sert  T  humanite." 

"  Le  peuple  ail6  des  bois,  s'  essayant  dans  les  airs, 
D*  un  vol  timide  encor  rase  les  champs  deserts. 
II  s'  anime,  il  s*  egaie,  &  d'  une  aile  bardie 
II  s'  elance,  en  chantant,  vers  1'  astre  de  la  vie." 

"  II  dompte,  en  se  jouant,  ce  taureau  mena9ant, 
Qui  r^siste  avec  crainte  Sc  cede  en  mugissant.** 

"  Pauvre  Didon  I  ou  t'  a  reduite 
De  tes  maris  le  triste  sort  ? 
L'  uri,  en  mourant^  cause  ta  fuite  ; 
\J  autre,  en  fuyant^  cause  ta  mort." 


There  are  many  cases  in  which  the  Participle  qualify- 
ing and  completing  all  at  once,  is  not  preceded  by  the 
Preposition  en  ;  as  in  the  following  phrase. 

Comment  voulez-vous  que  n'  I  How  is  it  possible  that  not  stu- 
etudiant  pas,  on  devienne  I  f/z/zw^, one  becomes  learned? 
savant  ?  I 


savant  ? 

Etudiant  both  qualifies  and  completes  :  it  is  as  if  there 
was, 

Comment  voulez-vous  que,  lorsqu'  on  n'  etudie  pas^  on  devi- 
enne savant. 

Note,  in  general,  that  whenever  the  sense  would  be 
equivocal  or  ambiguous  without  ^;/,  it  must  be  expressed. 

RULE  III. 


When  a  Participle  present  is  employed  solely  to  qualif^' 
a  Substantive  and  not  to  complete  a  Verb,  it  ought  not  to 
be  preceded  by  the  Preposition  en — and  it  fulfils  this  duty, 
when  it  can  be  rendered  by  qui^  &c.  and  the  Indicative  oi 
the  Verb  ;  which  construction  is  generally  preferable  to 

VOL.  II.  E  e  e 


m 


396 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


the  Participle  present^  especially  if  the  Participle  present 
has  a  reference  to  a  Noun  acted  upon  by  the  Preposition  a. 


EXAMPLES. 


J'  a  vu  voire  frere    courant  ou 

qui  courait  a  toutes  jambes. 
Apercevez'vous   les    matclots 

ramant   ou  qui  rament  vers 

la  cote  ? 
C*  est  une  femme  aimant  ou 

qui  aime  son  mari. 


I   saw    your   brother  running 

with  full  speed. 
Do  you   perceive  the    sailors 

rowing  towards  the  coast  ? 

She  is   a   woman  loving   her 
husband. 


In  the  first  place,  courant  merely  qualifies  the  Noun 
frtre^  and  does  not  complete^  at  the  same  time,  the  Verb 
y  at  VII ;  because  one  may  say,  "  J'  ai  vu  votre  frere  qui 
courait  a  toutes  jambes." 

By  placing,  therefore,  en  before  courant,  the  sense  of 
the  phrase  would  change — The  Participle  would  qualify 
the  Pronoun  y>,  and  would  complete,  at  the  same  time,  the 
Verb  f  ai  vu — ''  ^  ai  vu  votre  frere,  en  courant  a  toutes 
jambes,"  that  is  to  say,  "J'  ai  vu  votre  frere,  lorsque  je 
cournis  a  toutes  jambes." 

As  you  might  be  apt  to  impose  gender  or  number  on 
the  Participle  present,  as  beginners  often  do,  owing  to 
many  Adjectives  ending  in  ant,*  such  as  charmant,  obli' 
geant,  soitffrant,  &c.  which  assume  gender  or  riumber,  as 
the  Nouns  to  which  they  are  subject,  require  it ;  it  is  ne- 
cessary for  me  to  establish  the  material  difference  which 
exists  between  the  real  Participle  present  and  the  Adjec- 
tive in  ant. — The  former  is  a  Verb,  because  it  has  either 
a  complement  or  expresses  a  circumstance  of  time  ;  and 
the  latter  has  no  complement,  at  least  direct,  and  expresses 
no  circumstance  of  time. 

It  is  true,  those  Adjectives  were  formerly  Participles 
present  and  w^ere  then  liable  to  gender  or  number,  as  may 
be  noticed  in  some  law  terms,  such  as  :  Les  gens  tenants 
notre  cour ;  la  rendante  compte  ;  but,  as  the  French  lan- 


*  Of  all  the  Participles  in  ant^  only  those  of  the  Neuter  or  Stationary 
Verbs  may  vary— so  one  may  say,  "  une  hmnem  repugnante  i  la  mienne  , 
■» — une  ctoffe  apprcchante  de  la  \6  re,'' — But  this  rule  is  far  from  being  ge- 
neral, as  one  could  not  say,  "  des  tilles  travaillantes  a  la  terre ;  des 
personncs  arrivantes  de  campagwc." — One  might  find  in  some  of  our  best 
j)oet:?,  instances  of  Participles  present  both  of  Active  and  Stationary  Verbs 
Ttiade  variable  ;  but  this  licence  has  not  been  fully  granted  to  them  by  t.sage. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


397 


guage  has  since  acquired  a  fixed  character,  by  which  the 
Participle  present  is  invariable^  we  must  conform  to  it. — 
In  a  word,  to  distinguish  the  Participle  present  from  the 
AdjeSlive^  which  has  the  same  termination,  it  suffices  to 
know  that  the  Verb  etre  connects  itself  well  with  the  Ad- 
jeSiive  ending  in  ant^  but  can/jo?,  by  any  means,  with  the 
Participle  present. 


We  may  say  1 


'Je  suis  preve- 

nant, 
Tu    es    cfiar- 

mant, 
II    est  sedui- 

sant. 


Je  svAslisant. 

Wecannotsay,^  Ta^^c3_  ..„- 

II     est    ser- 
■vant. 


I  will  inform  you,  that  almost  every  grammarian,  be- 
sides the  Participle  present^  admits  of  a  gerund^  which  is 
nothing  but  the  Participle  present  preceded  by  the  Pre- 
position en.  This  denomination  appearing  to  us,  after 
mature  consideration,  quite  superfluous,  we  have  not 
adopted  it,  and  leave  it,  with  pleasure,  to  the  Latin  gram- 
marians, who  wanted  it.  I  conclude. this  account  of  the 
Participle  present  by  observing  that  ayant  and  etant  very 
seldom  admit  the  Preposition  e-^z  before  them. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  TWENTIETH. 


OJV  THE  DECLIJVJBIIITY  OR    IJVDECLIJVJBILITY 
OF  THE  PAST  PARTICIPLE. 


Master. 

THE  question  when  the  past  Participle  of  a  Verb  is 
declinable^  or  when  it  is  indeclinable^  involves  many  diffi- 
culties ;  as  even  the  first  rate  grammarians  appear  di- 
vided among  themselves  on  some  points  it  involves ;  while 
they  have  all  supported  their  opinions  by  very  ingenious 
reasons ;  our  opinion  on  this  subject  will,  I  think,  be 


:v98 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


found  ,conformable  to  strict  logic,  an^  our  principles  ade- 
quate to  the  solution  of  the  difficulties  alluded  to. — If  I 
should  not  always  impart  my  motives  for  adopting  one 
opinion  and  rejecting  another,  it  is  merely  owing  to  the 
long  process  of  reasoning  necessary  to  support  our  doc- 
trine or  refute  theirs  ;  as  I  could  not  presume  to  adopt 
an  opinion  different  from  those  of  Vaugclas,  Regnier^  Con- 
dillacy  Wailli}^  &c.  without  assigning  reasons  at  full  length 
for  it. — Besides,  upon  the  whole,  I  consider,  that  however 
interesting  these  discussions  may  be  to  a  critic^  or  a  philolo- 
gist^ or  ?i  professed  grammarian^  they  are  by  no  means  so  to 
the  learner,  who  cannot  discover  in  them  the  least  utility 
to  compensate  the  loss  of  time  he  might  have  so  much 
better  employed,  and  the  difficulty  he  experiences  in  the 
investigation  of  the  subject. 

Xp  proceed  with  a  degree  of  regularity  and  simplicity, 
at  the  same  time,  I  will  consider  the  past  Participle  con- 
jugated, 

1st,  with  etre. 

2d,  with  avoir. 

3d,  with  the  ReJleSlive  Verb. 

1st,  Of  the  Participle  past^  conjugated  with  etre» 

RULE    I. 

The  past  Participle  conjugated  with  Hre^  always  agrees 
in  gender  and  number  with  the  subjedl  of  the  Verb, 

EXAMPLES. 


Le  crime  est  detcste  ;  mais  la 

■vertu   n'  est    pas    toujours 

aimee, 
Elle  6tait,   dans  sa  jeunesse, 

douee  d'  une  beaute  ravis- 

sante. 
Les  hoinmes  vertueux  sont  es- 

times  meme  cles  mechans. 
Les  feinmes    vertueuses   sont 

respiectees  de  tout  le  monde. 


Crimes  ave  detented  ;  but  virtue 
is  not  always  loved. 

She  was,  in  her  youth,  endowed 
with  ravishing  beauty. 

Virtuous  men  are  esteemed  even 

by  the  wicked. 
Virtuous  women  are  respected 

by  every  body. 


"  O  toi  qui  vols  la  houte  oixje  suis  descendue, 
Impbtcable  Venus  1  suis-yV  assez  confondue? 
Tu  ne  saurais  plus  loin  pousser  ta  cruaute, 
Ton  triomphe  ^^iparfait^  tes  traits  out  tous  porte." 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


399 


RULE  II. 

When  ete  joined  to  one  of  the  tenses  of  ccuoir  is  fol- 
lowed by  another  Participle,  the  latter  is  declinable* 


EXAMPLES. 


Cette  actpice  a  et^  afifilaudie  du 
parterre  &  des  loges. 

Nous  avons  ete  trains  par  ceux- 
meme  a  qui  nous  avions  et^ 
recommandea. 


This  actress  has  been  afifilaud^ 
ed  by  the  pit  and  boxes. 

We  have  been  betrayed  even 
by  those  to  whom  we  had 
been  recommended. 


JMaster. 

As  the  declinability  or  indeclinability  of  the  past  Parti- 
ciple in  the  examples  that  will  now  follow,  depends  upon 
its  being  preceded  by  its  direct  complement,  or  upon  its 
preceding  its  indireSl  complement ;  I  now  give  you  a  list 
of  the  complements  direB^  and  another  of  the  comple- 
ments indiredl  that  always  precede  the  past  Participle. 


The  complements  direSl  are  ffteen  in  number ;  viz. 


me. 

te, 

se, 

nous. 

vous, 

k. 

la. 

les 


.  I  which    may   be 
.  ^    rendered  by 


"moi. 

que. 

toi. 

que  de  ! 

soi. 

combien  de  ? 

nous 

and  < 

quely  s.  M. 

vous 

quelle,  S.  F. 

lui. 

quels,  PL.  M. 

elle. 

jquelles,  PL.  F 

.eux. 

The  complements  indireSl  are  seven  in  number  :  viz. 


7ne. 

te. 

se. 

lui. 

leur. 

nous. 

vous. 


a  moi. 

a  toi. 

a  soi. 

a  lui,  on  a 

elle. 

a  eux,  ou 

a  elks. 

i  nous. 

Ji  vous. 

400  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

2d,  Of  the  past  Participle,  conjugated  with  avoir. 


RULE  I. 

The  past  Participle  is  indeclinable^  when  it  precedes  its 
direct  complement. 

EXAMPLES. 


Elle  a  regu  des  nouvelles. 
Nous  avons  trouve  cette  piece 

interessante. 
Ces  hommes  ont  rendu  leurs 

talens  celeb  res. 


She  has  received  news. 

We  found  this  piece  interest- 
ing. 

These  men  have  rendered  th^xv 
talents  celebrious. 


"  Manes  de  mon  amant,  j'  ai  done  trahi  msijbi.' — 
"  C  en  est  fait  8c  Gusman  regnc  a  jamais  sur  moi.' 


RULE  II. 

The  past  Participle  is  declinable,  when  it  is  preceded  hy 
its  direSl  complement,  even  when  it  is  followed  by  an 
Adje&ive  or  another  Participle  past, 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  nou-vclles  qu'  elle  a  recues. 

La  piece  que  vous  avez  trouvSe 

interessante. 
Les  hommes  que  leurs  talens 

ont  rendiis  celeb  res. 
II  n'  a  pas  eu  le  tems  de  faire 

reponse  aux  lettres  que  vous 

lui  avez  ecrites. 


The  news  which  she  has  re- 

ceived* 
The  piece  which  yon  found  en^ 

tertaining. 
The   men  whom  their  talents 

have  rendered  ctlebrious. 
He  had  no  time  to  answer  the 

letters  you  wrote  him. 


"  Quels  charmes  ont  pour  vous  des  yeux  infortun6s 
"  Qu'  1  des  pleurs  eternels  vous  avez  condajnnes .'" 


On  m'  a  blame  de  /'  en  avoir. 
prevenue. 


I  have  been  blamed  for  inform- 
ing her  of  it. 


"  Seigneur,  vous  ttc  avez  'uue  attachee  a  vous  nuire  ; 
*'  Dans  le  fond  de  iPion  cosur  vous  ne  pouviez  pas  lire. 


Le  malheur  t'  a  livree->  6  reine 
courageuse,  dans  les  mains 
de  tes  bourreaux  I 


Misfortune  has  given  thee  up, 
O  courageous  queen,into  the 
hands  of  thy  murderers  I 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  401 

«  Que  je  crains mais,  dis-moi,  Bajazet  ^'a-t-il  -oue  ? " 

II  nous  a  rei^us  avec  beaucoup  I  He  received  us  with  much  po- 
d'  honnetete.  |      liteness. 

"  Je  reconnais  1'  erreur  qui  nous  avait  seduits," 


Je  ne  vous  avais  pas  aper(^ue, 
Madmne^  lorsque  vous  /'  avez 
rencontrSe* 


I  had  not  perceived  you,  Ma- 
dam^  when  you  met  her. 


«  Oui,  Roxane,  il  est  vrai  que  je  vous  ai  trompee.'' 

Y  a-t-ll  long-tems  que  vous  ne  (  How  long  is  it  since  you  satv 
les  avez  vu^  ?  \       them  ? 

"  De  soins  plus  importans  je  /'  ai  vue  agitee. 
"  Je  i"  ai  rmdue  horrible  a  ses  yeux  inhumains. 
"  Le  bruit  de  nos  tresors  les  a  tous  attires**^ 


Que  de  peines  ne  me  suis-je 
pas  donneea  pour  vous  ! 

Que  de  fatigues  n'  a-t-il  pas 
soutcnu'S  ! 

Que  deioXits  n'  a-t-il  ^2i?,faite8! 

Combien  d'  arpens  de  terre 
avez-vous  achctes  ? 


What  trouble   did   I  not  give 

myself  for  you  ! 
What   hardships    did    he  not 

bear  ! 
What  pranks  did  he  not  play  ! 
Hotv  jnany  acres  of  land  have 

you  bought  ? 


"  Pendant  ces  derniers  terns,  combien  en  a-t-on  vus^ 
"  Qui,  du  soir  au  matin,  sont  pauvres  devenus  ? 
"  Pour  vouloir  trop  tot  etre  riches." 


Quelle  maison  avez-vous  bdlie? 
Quelles  dames   avez-vous  co7i- 
nues  ? 


What  house  have  you  built  ? 
What  ladies  did  you  know  ? 


"  Quels  assauts,  quels  combats  j'  ai  tantot  soutenus*^ 

RULE  III. 

The  Participle  pa!it  is  indeclinable^  when  preceded  by 
its  complement  direct,  and  followed  by  an  Infinitive  im- 
plying adlion  on  individuals  mentioned  in  the  phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 

Les  soldats  que  j'  ai  vu  desar- 

mer. 
Les  vertus  que  j'   ai   enicndu 

louwr. 


The  soldiers  I  savj  disarmed. 
The  virt;"s  I  heard  praised. 


402 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Les  jeunes  gens  que  j'  ai  vou- 
lu  instruire,  ne  m'  ont  pas 
6coute. 

Je  /'  ai  vu  peindre. 

Je  /'  ai  entendu  chanter. 

Je  /'  ai  vu  batir. 

Je  les  ai  entendu  reciter. 

Je  les  ai  vu  porter. 


The  young  men  I  nvished  to 
instruct,  paid  no  attention  to 
me. 

I  saw  her  picture  drawn. 

I  heard  it  sung,  (a  song). 

I  saw  it  built,  (a  house). 

I  heard  them  recited,  (lines). 

I  saw  them  carried,  (goods). 


RULE  IV. 

The  Participle  past  is  declinable^,  when  preceded  by  its 
complement  direSt^  and  followed  by  an  Infinitive  express- 
ing an  action  done  by  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

EXAMPLES. 


Je  /'  ai  vue  tomber. 

Je  /'  ai  entendue  chanter. 

Je  les  ai  entendus  reciter. 

Je  les  ai  vues  danser. 

Je  les  ai  vus  jouer. 

Les  soldats  que  j'  ai  vus  desar- 

mer. 
Les  courtisans  que  j'  ai  entcn- 

dus  louer. 


I  saw  it  fall,  (a  house). 

I  heard  her  sing. 

I  heard  them  recite. 

I  saw  them  dance. 

I  saw  them  play. 

The  soldiers  I  saw  disarming. 

The  courtiers  which   I  heard 
praising. 


RULE  V. 


The  past  Participle  is  indeclinable^  when  preceded  by 
its  complement  dire8t^  and  immediately  followed  by  the 
Preposition  a  or  dc  before  an  Injinitive^  we  cannot^  by 
suppressing  the  complement  direSl^  place  the  subject  of 
the  proposition  after  the  Participle. 

EXAMPLE. 


L*  histoire  que  j'  ai  commence 

a  lire  est  tres-amusante. 
La  femme  qu'  il  a   cherche  a 

seduire  lui  a  resiste. 
Les  hon\me.'j  que  nous  avons 

craint  d'  aborder,  etaient  des 

voleurs. 
La  demoiselle  que  vous  avez 

cesse  de  voir,  est   fort  spiri- 

tuelle. 


The  history  which  I  began  to 
read  is  very  entertaining. 

The  woman  he  sought  to  seduce 
has  resisted  him. 

The  men  whom  we  feared  to 
come  up  with,  were  thieves. 

The  young  lady  whom  you  de- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


403 


It  is  contrary  to  the  genius  of  the  French  language 
to  say, 

J'  ai  commence  V  histoire  a  lire. 
II  a  cherche  la  femme  a  seduire. 
Nous  avons  craint  les  homines  d'  abordcn 
Vous  avez  cesse  la  demoiselle  de  voir* 


RULE  VI. 


The  past  Participle  is  declinable^  when  preceded  by  its 
complement  direSl^  and  immediately  followed  by  the  Pre- 
position a  or  de  before  an  Infinitive^  we  can^  by  suppress- 
ing the  complement  direct^  place  the  name  of  the  object 
spoken  of  after  the  Participle. 


EXAMPLES. 


Les  ouvriers  qu'  \\  a  obliges 
a.  travailler,  ne  sent  pas  con- 
tens  de  lui. 

Les  femmes  que  nous  avons 
instrultes  a  feindre,  nous  ont 
surpasses. 

Les  hommes  que  nous  avons 
convaincus  d'  avoir  vole,  sont 
en  prison. 

La  simplicite  que  j'  ai  eue  de 
les  croire,  est  la  cause  de 
tout  mon  nralheur. 


The  workmen  ivhom  he  obliged 
to  work,  are  not  pleased  with 
him. 

The  women  ivhom  we  have  in- 
structed to  dissemble,  have 
surpassed  us. 

The  men  whom  we  have  con- 
victed of  robbery,  are  in 
goal. 

The  simplicity  that  I  had  to 
believe  them,  is  the  cause 
of  all  my  misfortunes. 


"  Vous  me  donnez  des  noms  qui  doivent  me  surprendre, 
"  Madame ;  on  ne  w'  a  point  instruite  a  les  entendre." 


One  can  say,  agreeably  to  the  genius  of  the  French 
language, 

II  a  oblige  les  ouvriers  a  travailler. 
Nous  avons  instruit  lesfem?nes  a  feindre. 
Nous  avons  convaincu  les  hommes  d'  avoir  vole. 
J'  ai  eu  la  simplicite  de  les  croire.  \ 


VOL.    II. 


f  f 


404 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


RULE  VII. 

The  Participle  pasty  preceded  by  the  relative  Adverb 
en^  without  being  first  preceded  by  the  complement  diredl^ 
is  indeclinable > 

EXAMPLES. 


II  a  fait  lui  seul  plus  d'  ex- 
ploits que  les  autres  n'  en 
ont  lu. 

y  ai  maintenant  plus  de  sante 
que  je  n'  en  ai  jamais  eu, 

y  ai  dessine  plus  de  paysages 
que  vous  n'  en  avez  vu. 

De  deux  filles,  la  mere  en 
avait/azV  une  Religieuse. 


He  has  perfomed  alone  more 
exploits  than  the  others 
have  read, 

I  have  at  this  time  more  health 

>     than  I  ever  had, 

I  have  designed  more  land- 
scapes than  you  have  seen. 

Of  two  daughters,  the  mother 
had  made  one  a  Nun.  ' 


It  is  evident  that  que^  in  the  sentences  above,  is  not  the 
complement  direSl  of  the  Participle  past;  it  is  nothing 
but  a  Conjun&ion^  taken  in  an  adverbial  sense,  which  does 
not,  of  course,  receive  the  injluence  of  the  Participle,  so 
aitto  become  its  complement  direSl. 

RULE  VIIL 

The  past  Participle  is  declinable^  when  preceded  by  en 
and  its  complement  direSl, 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  en  avez-vous  prevenus? 
Les  femmes  q^ie  j*  en  ai  con- 

vaincues, 
Vous  parlez    de    ses    fautes ; 

combien  n'  en  a-t-il  pas  com- 

mises  I 


Have  you  informed  them  of  it. 
The  woman  which  I  have  con- 
vinced of  it. 
You  speak  of  his  faults;  hoiu 
mamj  has  he  not  committed  I 


-Dejd  la  renommee 


"  Par  d'  etonnans  recits  m'  en  avail  informee.** 

RULE  IX. 

When  the  past  Participle  is  followed  by  que,  it  is  al- 
ways indeclinable. 

EXAMPLES. 

Terminez  les  affaires  que  vous  I  Put  an  end  to  the  business  which 
Si\Qzp7'evu  que  vous  auriez-  j      youyore^azy  you  should  have. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


405 


Les  bijous  que   j*  ai  ordonne 

qu*  on  m'  envoyat. 
Les  depenses  qu'  ils  ont  cru 

que  je  ferais. 
Les  terres  qu'  il  aurait  desire 

que  j'  eusse  achetees. 


The  jewels  that  I  ordered  to  be 
sent  to  me. 

The  expenses  which  they 
thought  I  would  incur. 

The  lands  he  would  have  de- 
sired I  should  have  bought. 


3d,  Of  the  past  Participle  of  Reflective  Verbs. 

RULE  I. 

The  past  Participle  of  RefleBive  Verbs  is  always  de^ 
dinabley  when  attended  by  its  complement  direSl. 

EXAMPLES. 


Les   Amazones   se   sont   con- 

vertes  de  glorie. 
Ils  se  sont  decides  a  lui  faire 

un  proces. 
Elle  s*  est  avisee  de  me  donner 

un  soufflet. 
Elle    *'    est  assise  aupres   de 

moi. 
Ils  se  sont  rendus  formidable s. 

jEUe  *'  Gt^iit  Jlat  tee  de  reus  sir. 


The  Amazons  covered  them' 

selves  with  glory. 
They  have  determined  to  sue 

him. 
She    took  it   into  her  head    to 

give  me  a  box  on  the  ear. 
She  sat  by  me. 

They  have  rendered  themselves 

formidable. 
ShGjlattered  herself  she  would 

succeed. 


RULE  IL 

The  past  Participle  of  ReJieSlive  Verbs,  when  attended 
by  a  complement  indiredl^  is  indeclinahle. 


EXAMPLES. 


Lucrece  «*  est  donne  la  mort. 
Elle  s*  est  mis  des  chitneres  dans 

r  esprit.  • 

Les  Amazones  se  sont  acquis 

de  la  gloire, 
Vous  vous  etes  dit  des  honne^ 

tetes^ 


Lucretia  killed  herself. 

She  has  stored  chimeras  in  her 

head. 
The  Amazons   have   acquired 

glory  to  themselves, 
Yoxis/ioke  to  one  another  civilly. 


406 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


lis   se   sont  firSfiarS  bien  des  I  They  have  firefiared  for  them- 
fieines,  \       selves  much  trouble. 

"  Deux  fois  nos  tristes  yeux  se  sont  vu  retracer^ 
<«  Ce  meme  enfant  toujours  tout  pret  a  me  percer." 

RULE  III. 

The  past  Participle  of  RejieElive  Verbs,  when  attended, 
at  the  same  time,  by  two  complements,  one  direSl^  and 
the  other  indireSl^  is  declinable, 

5:XAMPLES, 


La  mort  que  Lucrece    s'   est 

donnee. 
Les   chimeres  qu'  elle  s'  est 

mises  dans  1'  esprit. 
La   gloire  que  se  sont  acquise 

les  Amazones. 
Les  honnetetes  que  vous  vous 

etes  dites, 
Les  peine s  qu*  ils  se  sont  fire- 

parees. 


The  death  that  Lucretia  ga-me 

herself. 
The  chimeras  that  she  put  into 

her  brains. 
The  glory  which  the  Amazons 

acquired. 
The   civil  speeches  you  made 

one  to  another. 
The  trouble  they  prepai-ed  for 

themselves. 


Scholar. 

You  have  said  nothing  concerning  the  declinability  of 
the  past  Participle  of  Stationary  Verbs,  construed  with 

Avoir,  J 

Master. 

For  a  good  reason:  you  have  seen  in  all  the  above  ex- 
amples concerning  the  past  Participle,  that,  to  be  declina^ 
hie,  it  must  be  preceded  by  a  complement  dire&  ;  and,  as 
the  Stationary  Verbs  have  none,  their  past  Participle 
must  necessarily  be  indeclinable,  when  construed  with 
Avoir, 


EXAMPLES. 


On  pourrait  compter  par  les 
bienfaits  de  cet  homme 
rare  les  jours  qu'  il  a  vecu. 

II  faut  retrancher  de  la  vie  les 
heures  qu'  on  a  dormi. 


Wfe  may  estimate  the  good 
deeds  of  that  rare  man  by 
the  days  he  has  lived. 

We  should  deduct  from  life 
the  hours  we  slept. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


401 


In  the  two  above  examples  que  is  not  a  complement ;  it 
is  used  in  the  first  instead  oi pendant  lesquels  ;  and  in  the 
second  instead  of  pendant  ksquelles* 

The  past  Participle  of  Stationary  Verbs,  is,  on  the 
contrary,  always  declinable^  when  construed  with  etre. 

» 

EXAMPLES. 


EUe  est  venue  me  parler. 

EUe  s'  est  allee  baigner. 

Les  navires  sont  alles  se  briser 

a  la  cote. 
Cette  femme  est  arrives  a  cinq 

heures  &  est  rejiartie  a  sept. 


She  came  and  spoke  to  me. 
She  ivent  to  bathe  herself. 
The  vessels   went   and  bilged 

on  the  coast. 
This    woman    arrived   at  five 

o*  clock  and  set  off  again  at 

seven. 


I  conclude  this  account  of  the  declinability  of  the  past 
Participle  by  observing, 

1st,  Th^xX.  fait  is  indeclinable^  as  well  as   some  other 
past  Participles,  when  used  in  an  abstraH  sense. 

EXAMPLES. 


Le  pluie  qu'  il  ^fait  m'  a  em- 

pcche  de  sortir. 
Les  troupes  qu'  il  a  fallu  leur 

envoyer  ont  affaibli  I*  armee. 

La  depense  qu*  il  y  a  ew  clans 
cette  maison  est  effroyable. 


The  rain  which  \i2L%  fallen  pre- 
vented me  from  going  out. 

The  troops,  which  it  has  been 
necessary  to  send  them,  have 
enfeebled  the  army. 

The  expense,  that  there  has 
been  in  that  house,  is  horri- 
ble. 


2d,  That  fait  of  all  the  past  Participles,  which  maybe 
united  to  the  Infinitive  of  ASlive,  or  Stationary  Verbs,  is 
the  07ily  one  diat  always  rernains  indeclinable. 


Les   chemises   que   j' 
faire. 

Voila  les  livres  que  j'  ai  fait 
venir  de  France. 

Je  1'  ^ifait  entrer  avec  beau- 
coup  de  difficulte. 


EXAMPLES. 

ai  fait 


The  shirts  that  I  caused  to  be 

made. 
There  are  the  books  I  ordered 

from  France. 
I  made  her  come  in  with  a  great 

deal  of  difficulty. 


408  SYNTAX  MADE  EAS\. 

But  if  fait  has  the  sense  of  fabriquer^  creer^  former  ^ 
produire^  &c.  it  is  declinable. 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  bottes  qu'  il  m'  difaites  sont 
trop  etroites. 


The  boots  he  made  for  me  are 
too  tight. 


3d,  That  when  the  past  Participle  has  after  it  an  Lifi- 
nitive  understood,  it  is  then  indeclinable, 

EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  cite  les  plus  beaux  traits 

que  j'  ai  /iie» 
Elle  a  dit  toutes  les  plaisante- 

ries  qu'  elle  a  voulu, 
y  ai  fait  toutes  les  demarches 

que  j'  ai  diu 


I  have  quoted  the  noblest  traits 

I  could. 
She  said    all  the   pleasantries 

she  would, 
I  took  all  the  steps  I  should, 

or  ought. 


The  Infinitives  citer^  dire,  &  faire  are  understood  in 
the  above  phrases. 


INSTRUCTION  THE  TWENTY-FIRST. 


ON    THE    PROPER    CHOICE    OF   THE   JUXILIJRY, 


Master. 

YOU  have  undoubtedly  observed  in  the  course  of  this 
work,  that  the  Participles  past  oiadlive  Verbs  having  a  di- 
reSl  complement,  are  combined  with  the  auxiliary  etre, 
in  order  to  give  a  passive  sense  to  the  phrase,  as  in  the 
following  line  j 

"  Tout  mortel  est  charge  de  sa  propre  douleur." 

est  charge,  is  used  in  a  passive  sense,  because  one  may 
say,  charger  quelqu'  un. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  409 

Also,  that  all  our  Rejiedlhe  Verbs,  contrary  to  the  ge- 
nius of  the  English,  are  conjugated  with  Hrc  in  their 
past  tenses ;  as, 

"  Je  suis  pere,  &:  ce  coeur  qu'  on  tel  arret  dechire, 

"  S'  en  est  dit  cent  fois  plus  que  tu  ne  peux  m'  en  dire." 

There  are  some  Verbs,  which,  without  being  used /?^^- 
sivelij  or  reJleElivelij^  take  the  auxiliary  ctre ;  as, 

Aller^  arriver^  deceder^  dcchAr^  entrer^  mourir^  naitre^  fiartir^ 
rester^  sortir^  tomber-i  -venir  and  its  compounds,  devenir^  inter- 
venir^  parvenir^  revenir,  and  survcnir. 

REMARK  ON  ALLEU,   SORTIR,  AND  10MBER. 

ALLER. 

We  always  make  use  of  Stre^  when  aller  is  conjugated 
with  its  own  Participle  :  so  they  say,  "  il  est  alle^  il  Halt 
aUe/^  but  should  the  word  ete  be  substituted  for  the  word 
alU^  then  the  auxiliary  avoir  must  be  substituted  for  the 
auxiliary  etre:  so  they  must  say,  in  the  sense  of  aller ^ 
"  il  a  ete^^  instead  of  ^'  il  est  eie^"*  which  is  a  barbarism 
in  French. — There  is  a  very  nice  distinction  between 
"  il  est  alle^"*  and  "  il  a  ete,'''*  for  they  are  by  no  means 
synonymous  :  the  former  meaning  that  the  person  is  gone 
and  is  not  yet  returned ;  while  the  latter  means  that  he  is 
returned  from  the  place  where  he  had  been,  or  where  he 
had  lived. — From  this  remark  it  is  evident  that  aller, 
conjugated  with  the  Verb  etre,  cannot  be  used  for  the 
first  nor  the  second  person,  but  only,  for  the  third, 

SORTIR. 

This  Verb  first  takes  the  auxiliary  avoir,  to  express 
that  somebody  who  was  out  returned :  so  we  say  of  some- 
body that  has  returned,  "  il  a  sorti ;"  but  should  he  not 
be  returned  yet,  we  would  say,  "  il  est  sorti." 

Sortir  is  also  conjugated  with  avoir,  when  it  is  follow- 
ed by  a  complement. 

EXAMPLES. 
Le  palefrenier  fl-t-il  sorti  mes 

chevaux  de  1'  ecurie  ? 
Remerciez-le  de  vousat'ozV sor- 


ti d'  une  affaire  si  facheuse. 


Has  the  ostler  taken  my  horses 
out  of  the  stable  ? 

Thank  him  for /ww;^  extricat- 
ed you  from  so  unpleasant  an 
affair. 


10 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


TOMBER, 

This  Verb  never  admits  for  the  conjugation  of  its  past 
tenses,  of  any  other  auxiliary  than  etre :  so  we  must  say, 
"  Je  suis  tombe, — J'  etais  tombe  >"  but  never  "  J' «i 
tombe, — J'  avais  tombe,"  which  is  a  mistake  into  which 
a  great  many  French  are  liable  to  fall  j  even  Voltaire^  the 
most  correct,  perhaps,  of  our  writers,  has  committed  it 
in  the  following  lines. 

"  Ou  serais-je,  Grand  Dleu !  si  ma  credulite 
"  £{ii  tombe  dans  le  piege  a  mes  pas  presente." 
q;^  Fut  should  have  been  used  instead  ci  tut. 

The  Verbs  Suh'-jcnir^  Apparaitre,  Comparaitre^  Ap- 
procher^  are  always  conjugated  with  the  auxiliary  avoir, 

EXAMPLES. 


On  a  subvenu  a  tous  les  be- 

soins  les  plus  urgens. 
11  croit   que   1'  ombre   de   sa 

maitresse   lui  a  apparu   en 

songe. 
V  6tais  sur  qu'  il  n'  cut  point 

comparu  devant  les  Juges. 


The  most  urgent  wants  have 

been  all  relieved. 
He  believes  that  the  ghost  of 

his  mistress  has  appeared  to 

him  in  a  dream. 
I  was  sure  that  he  would  not 

have  made   his   appearance 

before  the  Judges. 


"  Vieillards,  femmes,  enfans,  troupeau  faible  Sc  timide 
"  Dont  n'  a  point  approche  cette  guerre  homicide." 

The  Verbs  Adourir^  Dlsparaitre^  CrcUre^  Decrottrey 
Contrevenir^  are  conjugated  with  either  of  tliese  auxiliary 
Verbs. 

EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  accouru  ou  Je  sids  accou- 

ru  au  bruit. 
La  riviere  a  cru  ou  est  crue. 
Les  aux  ont  bien  decru  ou  sont 

bien  decrues. 
11    pretendait    n*    avoir   point 

centre venu  oti  n'  etre  point 

contrevenu  a  la  loi. 
Je  n'  ai  fait  que  tourner  la  tete, 

elle  a  disparu  ou  elle  est  dis- 

parue. 


I  ran  to  the  noise. 

The  river  has  increased. 

The  waters  have  much  de- 
creased. 

He  pretended  not  to  have  con- 
travened the  lay,'. 

I  did  but  turn  my  head,  and 
she  disappeared. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  411 

Perir  is  generally  ranked  by  all  grammarians  {Restaut 
excepted)  among  the  Verbs  which  admit  equally  well  of 
either  auxiliaries.  The  distinction  which  the  latter  makes, 
having  appeared  as  delicate  as  it  is  judicious,  I  shall 
insert  his  remark  on  the  use  of  this  Verb. 

"  It  is  probable  that  the  auxiliary  Avoir  suits  better, 
when  the  Verb  has  a  general  and  indeterminate  sense  ; 
as  when  we  say,  Les  enfans  du  Grand  Pretre  (High 
Priest)  ont  peri  miserablement. — And  that  the  auxiliary 
Hre  is  preferable,  when  the  Verb  is  attended  by  particular 
circumstances,  as  in  the  following  phrases  : 

Les  habitans  de  Jerusalem  sont  peris  ^ar  lefer  ^  fiar  le  feu, 
\J  armee  de  Pharaon  est  perie  dans  les  eaux  de  ki  mer  rouge.'* 

The  Verbs  following  change  their  meaning  by  a  change 
of  auxiliary — viz. 

Accoucher,  when  conjugated  with  avoir ^  means  to  dC" 
liver. 

EXAMPLES. 


Cette  sage-femme  a  accouche 

Madame  une  telle. 
Quel  est  le  chirurgien  qui  vous 

a  accouche  ? 


This   midwife    has    delivered 

Mrs.  such-a-one. 
Who  is  the  surgeon  who  de^ 

livered  you  ? 


When  conjugated  with  stre^  it  means  to  bring forth^  to 
be  delivered. 

EXAMPLES. 


Cette  femme  est  accouchee  hier 
de  deux  jumeaux. 

Elle  etait  accouchee  d'  un  en- 
fant male. 

Vous  ne  la  verrez  pas  qu'  elle 
ne  soit  accouchee. 


This  lady  brought  forth  yes- 
terday two  twins. 

She  ivas  delivered  of  a  male 
child. 

You  shall  not  see  her,  till  she 
has  brought  forth. 


Cesser  is  always  conjugated  with  avoir ^  when  it  has  a 
complement ;  it  then  means  to  leave  off^^  to  cease, 

EXAMPLES. 

II  a  cess6  ses  filaintes.  I  He  has  ceased  his  complaints, 

II  a  cesse  de  Jileurer.  \  He  has  left  off  lueeping. 

VOL.  II.  CJgg 


412  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

The  same  Verb  is  conjugated  with  either  of  the  auxi- 
liaries, when  it  has  no  complement  ;  it  means  to  be  over^ 
to  have  ceased. 


EXx\MPLE. 

Sa  iievre  a  cesse  ou  est  cessee.  |  His  fever  is  over. 


Convenir  when  it  is  conjugated  with  avoir^  means  etre 
cofivenable,  to  suit ;  and  when  it  is  conjugated  with  etre^ 
it  means  demeurer  d"*  accord^  to  agree. 


EXAMPLE. 

Cette  maison  m'  a  convenu  Sc  I  This  house  suited  me  and  I 
je  suis  convenu  du  prix.  j      agreed  for  the  price. 

Demeurer  when  it  is  conjugated  with  avoir y  means  to 
reside  or  to  tarry,  to  stay  a  long  while. 

EXAMPLES. 


y  ai  demeure  pres  de  onze  ans 

a  Philadelphie. 
Sa  plaie  a  demeure  iong-tems  a 

se  fermer. 


I  have  resided  near  eleven  years 

in  Philadelphia. 
It  ivas  a  long  time  before  his 

wound  was  healed. 


But,  when  this  Verb  means  to  remain,  it  requires  etre, 
EXAMPLE. 

11  est  demeure  deux  mille  hom-  I  Two  thousand  men   remained 
mes  dans  la  place.  \      in  the  place. 

Racine  has  therefore  committed  a  fault,  when  he  said 


Ma  langue  embarrassee 


Dans  ma  bouchc  vingt  fois  a  demeuree  glacee. 
Est  should  have  been  used  instead  of  a. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


41: 


Monter  and  Descendre  admit  oi  either  auxiliary  ;  though 
etre  should  be  preferred. 

EXAMPLES. 

Our  Lord  ascended  to  heaven. 


Notre  Seigneur  est   monte  au 

ciel. 
II  a  ou  il  est  monte  a  cheval. 
II  etait  Enseigne ;  il  a  monte  a 

la  Lieutenance. 
Le  ble  a  ou  est  monte  jusqu*  a 

vingt  francs  le  septier. 
II  est  descendu  de  sa  chambre. 
La  Justice  a  descendu  dans  ce 

lieu. 


He  went  on  horseback. 

He  was  an  Ensign ;  he  has  been 

promoted  to  a  Lieutenancy. 
Corn  Jias  risen  to  twenty  francs 

the  twelve  bushels. 
He  came  doivn  from  his  room. 
The  Officers  of  Justice  went  in 

that  place. 


But,  should  those  Verbs  have  a  diredl  complement,  the 
auxiliary  avoir  only  should  be  used. 


EXAMPLES 

II  a  monte  un  sufierhe  cheval, 
II  a  descendu  les  degres  avec 
firecifiitation. 


He  mounted  a  superb  horse. 
He  came  down  stairs  with  pre- 
cipitation. 


Passer^  when  followed  by  any  complement^  is  conjugat- 
ed with  avoir, 

EXAMPLES. 


II  a  passe  le  long  de  la  Dela- 
ware, 
II  a  passe  par  tous  les  grades, 

EUe  a  passe  comme  une  chan- 
dclle  qui  s*  eteint. 


He  has  passed  along  the  Dela^ 

ware. 
He  has  passed  through  all  the 

degrees. 
She  went  off  just  like  a  candle 

that's  burnt  out. 


On  these  lines  of  Boileau, 

" Si  leur  sang  tout  pur,  ainsi  que  leur  noblesse, 

Est  passe  jusqu'  a  vous  de  Lucrece  en  Lucrece." 

D^ Olivet  observes  that,  "  a  passe''  would  be  better  ;  but 
should  that  Verb  close  the  phrase,  the  auxiliary  etre  should 
be  used. 

EXAMPLES. 


L'  annee  est  pass6e, 

Mes  beaux  jours  sont  passes. 


The  year  is  elapsed. 
My  happy  days  are  past. 


fU  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY, 

We  say,  however,  "  ce  mot  a  passe"  to  intimate  that 
it  has  been  admitted — and  "  ce  mot  est  passe,"  to  assert 
that  it  is  110  longer  in  use, 

Echapper  is  conjugated  with  avoir ^  when  it  is  attended 
by  a  direcl  complement. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  a  echappe  la  cdie,  le  danger^ 

la  fiotence, 
Vous  pouvez  vous  vanter  que 

vous  1*  avez  echappe  bctle. 


He  escaped  the  coast,  the  dan- 
ger, the  gallows. 
You  may  boast  that  you  had  a 

narrow  escajie* 


Except  in  the  above  cases,   it  takes  either  of  the  aux- 
iliaries. 

EXAMPLES. 


II    a   echappe  des  mains    du 

guet. 
II  est  echappe  du  feu,  des  ga- 

leres. 
Le  cerf  a  ou  est  echappe  aux 

chiens. 


He  escaped  from  the  hands  of 

the  watch. 
He  escaped  from  fire,  from  the 

galHes. 
The  stag //as  escaped  from  the 
dogs. 

I 
Courir^  signifying  to  rwn,  admits  of  the  auxiliary  avoir 
only, 

EXAMPLE. 

J*  y  ai  couru  aussitot  avec  em-  I  I  ran  there  immediately  with 
pressement.  |      eagerness. 

Racine^  has,  therefore,  committed  an  error  in  the  fol- 
lowing line  : 

"  II  en  etait  sorti  lorsque  j'  y  siiis  couru." 

I  believe  the  above  list  comprises  all  the  Verbs  of 
which  custom  has  justified  the  conjugation  occasionally, 
either  with  one  or  both  of  the  auxiliaries. — Should 
any  Verb  have  escaped  our  inquiries  we  must  refer 
you  to  the  reading  of  good  authors,  which  cannot  fail 
to  establish  the  habit  of  applying   the  proper  auxiliary 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


411 


to  the  Stationary  Verbs.  But  I  will  here  give  you  a  rule 
discovered  by  Restaut,  .which,  I  think,  is  pretty  accurate 
in  general. 

"  All  neuter  Verbs  (stationary')^  whose  past  Participle 
is  declinable^  are  conjugated  with  the  Verb  etre ;  the 
neuter  Verbs,  whose  past  Participle  is  indeclinable^ 
ought  to  be  conjugated  vf'ixh.  avoir.  Thus,  since  we  may 
say,  "  un  homme  tombe ;  une  femme  arrivee^^  we  ought 
to  conjugate  tomber  and  arriver^  with  the  Verb  etre  ;  but, 
as  we  cannot  say,  "  un  homme  dormi  ;  une  femme  reg' 
wee,"  one  cannot  conjugate  donnir  and  regner,  with  the 
Verb  etre;  they  must  be  conjugated  with  avoirJ*^ 


INSTRUCTION  THE  TWENTY-SECOND. 


OJ\r  THE  PREPOSJTIOJV. 


RULE  I. 


The   Preposition  a,  de^  or  en^  must  be  repeated  in  a 
sentence,  before  each  complement  of  theirs. 

EXAMPLE^  FOR  A, 


Le  jargon  supplee  a  V  esprit,  a 
la  raison,  a  la  science  dans 
les  personnes  qui  ont  un 
grand  usage  du  monde. 


Jargon  supplies  the  place  of 
wit,  reason,  and  science,  in 
people  who  have  a  great 
intercourse  with  the  world. 


"  Je  r  apporte  en  naissant,  elle  est  ecrite  en  moi, 

Cette  loi  qui  m'  instruit  de  tout  ce  que  je  doi 

ji  men  pere,  a  men  fils,  a  ma  femme,  a  moi-merae." 


416 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  DE, 


Sa  gaite  est  un  peu  bruyante, 
il  est  vrai ;  mais  il  a  tant  de 
franchise,  de  naturel  &  de 
bonhomie  qu'  il  est  impossi- 
ble de  le  trouver  importun. 


His  gaiety  is  rather  boisterous, 
it  is  true  ;  but  he  has  so  much 
openness,  ingenuousness,  Sc 
good  nature,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  find  him  impor- 
tunate. 


"  Eh  I  Que  vois-je  par  tout !  La  terre  n'  est  couverte 
Que  de  palais  detruits,  de  trones  renverses. 
Que  de  lauriers  fletris,  que  de  sceptres  brises." 

EXAMPLES  FOR  Em 


La  conversation  d'  aujourd'hui 
est  toute  en  saillies — en  me- 
nus propos — en  equivoques 
— en  calembours — en  jolis 
riens. 


The  conversation  of  now-a- 
days  is  all  in  sallies — in  tri- 
fling talk — in  equi vocals — 
in  puns — in  pretty  trifles  or 
nonsense. 


"  En  Asie,  en  Afrique,  en  Europe  &  par-tout 

La  vertu  ne  peut  rien  ;  &  c*  est  1'  or  qui  peut  tout." 


OBSERVATIONS. 
FIRST. 


Other  monosyllabic  Prepositions  must,   in   general,  be 
also  repeated  before  each  complement  of  theirs. 


EXAMPLES. 


Le  jargon,  ce  ramage  de  so- 
cietcjconsiste  dans  des  tours 
de  phrases  particuliers  ; 
da7is  un  usage  bizarre  des 
mots  ;  dans  V  art  de  relever 
de  petites  idees  par  des  ex- 
pressions recherchees  ;  on 
peut  le  pardonner  aux  fem- 
mes,  mais  il  est  indigne  d' 
un  homme. 

Les  Ministres  de  la  Religion 
se  regardent  comme  les 
docteurs,  les  peres  8c  les 
medecins  des  ames,  fiour  les 
instruire  de  la  pure  doctrine 
du  salut;  pour  pourvoir  a 
tous  leurs  besoins ;  fiour 
guerir  leurs  maux,  ou  fiour 
les  prevenir. 


Jargon,  this  warbling  of  soci- 
ety, consists  in  particular 
turns  of  phrases ;  in  a 
whimsical  usage  of  words  ; 
in  the  art  of  setting  off*  tri- 
fling ideas  by  means  of  af- 
fected expressions  :  it  may 
be  forgiven  to  women,  but 
it  is  unworthy  of  men. 

The  Ministers  of  Religion  look 
upon  themselves  as  doctors, 
fathers,  and  physicians  of 
souls,  to  instruct  them  in  the 
pure  doctrine  of  salvation ; 
to  provide  for  all  their  wants; 
to  cure  their  sores,  or  to  pre- 
vent them. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


417 


L'  homme  poli  est  patient,  in- 
dulgent, gcn6reux  sans  iv- 
resse  d*  amour-propre  ;  sans 
ecarls  ridicules  de  vanite; 
sans  humeur. 


A  polite  man  is  patient,  indul- 
gent, generous  ivithout  the 
intoxication  of  self-love ; 
without  ridiculous  flights  of 
vanity  j   without  ill  humour. 


"  Comment  opposerais-je  au  reste  des  humains 
Un  stupide  sauvage  errant,  a  1'  aventure ; 
A  peine  de  nos  traits  con  servant  la  figure  ; 
Un  miserable  peuple,  egare  dans  les  bois, 
Sans  maitre,  sans  etats,  sans  villes  &  sans  lois." 


Prepositions  of  more  than  one  syllable  are  seldom  re- 
peated, if  the  Nouns  complementary,  or  the  ideas  they 
express,  be  ever  so  little  synonymous  or  congeniaL 


EXAMPLE. 


Aujourd'  hui,  pourvu  qu'  on 
entre  dans  un  cercle  avec 
un  air  d'  importance  &  un 
habit  de  godt,  on  est  sur 
d'  etre  bien  accueilli. 


Now-a-days,  provided  one  en- 
ters a  circle  with  an  impor- 
tant air  and  a  fashionable 
coat,  he  is  sure  of  being 
well  received. 


But,  should  the  complementary  words  have  meanings 
totally  different^  the  Preposition  must  commonly  be  re- 
ptated, 

EXAMPLE. 


Rien  n'  est  moins  selon  Dieu 
Sc  selon  le  monde. 


Nothing  is  less  according  to 
God  and  according  to  the 
world. 


I  conclude  by  observing,  that  custom  alone  will  acquaint 
you  with  every  circumstance  in  which  the  Prepositions 
must  be  repeated^  and  when  it  is  required  that  they  should 
be  expressed  only  before  the  Jirst  complement,  as  they  are 
all,  except  c,  de  &  en^  liable  to  variations,  which  cannot 
be  embraced  by  any  rule. 


4U 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


SECOND. 


£n  differs  from  dans,  in  this  respect,  that  the  ^rst  is 
always  used  in  an  indefinite  sense,  while  the  secgfid  is 
used  in  a  definitive  sense. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  EM 


II  loge  en  chambre  garnie. 
Elle  est  en  pension  chez  Ma- 
dame A 

II  est  en  chemin. 
Elle  est  en  ville. 
II  vit  en  liberte. 
II  entra  en  fureur. 


He  lodges  in  a  furnished  room. 
She    is   at   board    with   Mrs. 

A 

He  is  a  coming. 
She  is  abroad. 
He  lives  at  ease. 
He  got  into  a  fury. 


Vous  le  trouverez  dans  sa 
chambre. 

Elle  est  dans  une  pension. 

II  est  dans  le  chemin. 

Elle  est  dans  la  ville. 

II  vit  dans  une  grande  liberte. 

II  entra  dans  une  fureur  ex- 
treme. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  DjIJ^S, 

You  will  find  him  in  his  room. 


She  is  in  a  boarding-house. 
He  is  on  the  road. 
She  is  m  the  city. 
He  lives  in  great  liberty. 
He    got  into  an  extreme  pas- 
sion. 


From  the  indeterminate  meaning  of  en  you  would  na- 
turally infer  that  it  ought  not  to  be  followed  by  the  Arti- 
cle ;  but  exceptions  have  crept  into  a  few  familiar  modes 
of  expressions  such  as  the  following : 


Vous  vous  en  allez  a  vue 
d'  oeil  en  V  autre  monde. 

On  r  a  bien  re9u  en  V  honneur 
de  vous. 

^n  V  honneur  de  quel  saint 
vous  voit-on  a  cette  heure  ? 

Je  n*  ai  voulu  lui  parler  qu' 
en  la  presence  de  ses  pa- 
rens. 

Je  n'  ai  pas  voulu  la  voir  en 
V  absence  de  son  mari. 


You  are  visibly  dying. 

He  has  been  well  received  in 
honour  of  you. 

Upon  what  account  do  we  see 
you  at  this  time  ? 

I  wanted  to  speak  to  him,  but 
in  the  presence  of  his  re- 
lations. 

I  would  not  see,  or  visit,  her 
in  the  absence  of  her  hus- 
band. 


SYNTAX  MADE  E ASY.  4 1 9 

By  attending  to  the  following  observations  and  re- 
marks, you  will  become  sensible  of  the  difference  in  the 
use  of  en^  dans^  and  a. 


First  \  ^^  arrivera  en  trois  jours. 
^  X  II  arrii 


Tivera  dans  trois  jours. 

The  jirst  means  that  he  will  be  three  days  coming. 

The  second  means  that  three  days  will  elapse  before 
his  coming. 

prison. 
Second, 


ril  est  a  la  prison 

,<  II  est  tn  prison. 

(_I1  est  dans  la  pri 


The  Jirst  of  the  above  cases,  is  construed  to  signify  he 
is  voluntarily  gone  to  the  prison. 

The  second^  that  he  has  been  put  there,  without  any  re- 
gard  to  his  will. 

The  third  is  doubtful  or  equivocal. 

Th*  H   S  ^^^  officiers  sont  en  campagne. 
'  \  Les  officiers  sent  a  la  campagne. 

The  Jirst^  means  that  the  officers  are  on  the  field. 
The  second^  that  they  are  in  the  country. 

THIRD. 

The  Prepositions  dessus  and  dessous,  dedans^  and  dehors^ 
cannot  be  used  by  themselves,  they  must  be  construed  to- 
gether and  have  the  sa?ne  complement. 

EXAMPLES. 


J'  ai  cherche  dessus  Sc   dessous 

la  table. 
La  fievre  jaune  est  dedans  8c 

dehors  la  ville. 


I  look  ufi07i  and  under  the  ta- 
ble. 

The  yellow  fever  is  within  and 
ivithout  the  city. 


These  Prepositions  are  in  the  following  phrases,  of 
course,  misapplied. 

J'  ai  cherch6  dessus  la  table. 
J'  ai  cherche  dessous  la  table. 
La  fievre  jaune  est  dedans  la  ville. 
La  fievre  jaune  est  dehors  la  ville. 
VOL.  II.  H  h  h 


420 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


To  render  those  phrases  correct,  the  Prepositions  5wr, 
sous^  dans^  hors  de^  must  be  substituted  for  those  used. 

The  above  abuse  has  even  crept  into  the  poetry  of 
Racine  and  Desbarreaux^  as  in  these  lines, 


-Ses  sacrileges  mains 


"  Dessous  le  meme  joug  rangent  tous  les  humains.**^ 

"  Mais  dessus  quel  endroit  tombera  ton  tonnerre 
"  Qui  ne  soit  tout  couvert  du  sang  de  Jesus  Christ." 


:»r 


In  order  that  dessus^  dessous,  dedans.,  dehors,  may  be 
used  correctly  by  themselves,  they  must  be  respectively 
acted  upon  by  another  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 


II  a  passe  par  dedans,  ou  par 

dehors  la  ville. 
II  avait  de  V  eau  par  dessus  la 

tete. 
On  r  a  tire  de  dessus  les  epines 

— de  dessous  les  mines. 
On  r  a  enleve  par  dessous  les 

bras. 


He  has  passed  within,  or  'with- 
out the  town. 
He  had  water  over  his  head. 

He  was  taken  off  o/' the  thorns 
— from  under  the  mines. 

They  raised  him  by  taking 
him  under  the  arms. 


In  the  conversation  on  the  Preposition,  I  have  shown 
you  in  what  circumstance  dessus,  dessous,  dedans,  dehors, 
might  be  used  singly  and  without  any  complement;  to 
which,  in  order  to  avoid  repetition,  I  now  refer  you. 

FOURTH. 

Durant  &  pendant,  denote  a  duration  of  time,  with  this 
difference,  that  durant,  is  applied  to  what  lasts  any  illimit' 
ed  time — and  pendant,  generally,  to  what  lasts  but  a  short 
time. 

EXAMPLES. 


Nos  ennemis  ont  reste  en  quar- 

tiers  d'  hiver  durant  la  cam- 

pagne. 
II  est  dangereux  de  sortir  de 

chezsoi  pendant  \q^  grandes 

chaleurs. 


Our  enemies  have  remained 
in  winter  quarters  during 
the  campaign. 

It  is  dangerous  to  go  out  of 
one's  house  during  the  dog- 
days. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


421 


"  Lc  r6gal  fut  fort  honnete ; 
Rien  ne  manquait  au  festin  ; 
Mais  quelqu'  un  troubla  la  fete, 
Pendant  qu'  its  etaient  en  train. 


Durant  is  the  only  Preposition  that  can  be  placed  after 
its  complement^  as  in  the  following  phrases. 


On  lui  fait  une  rente   sa  vie 

durant, 
II  a  6t6  absent  six  ans  durant. 


They  pay  bim  an  annuity  dur- 

ing  his  life. 
He  has   been   absent  for  six 

years. 


FIFTH. 


The  words  proche^  pres^  hors,  require  the  Preposition 
de  after  them. — The  only  cases  when  it  may  be  suppress- 
ed, are,  in  directions  to  places  or  in  conversation. 


EXAMPLES. 


II  lege  proche  le  Palais. 

A  Monsieur  un  tel  pres  le 
cimetiere  des  Innocens,  a 
Paris. 

Cette  maison  est  situee  /lors 
la  ville. 


He  lodges  near  the  Court- 
house. 

To  Mr.  such-a-one,  near  the 
cemetery  of  the  Innocents, 
at  Paris. 

This  house  is  situated  out  of 
the  city. 


SIXTH. 

Never  make  use  of  vis-a-vis  in  the  sense  of  envers^  a 
r  egard  &c.  as  a  great  many  French  people  do  :  and  in- 
stead of  saying,  *'  les  torts  que  j'  ai  vis-a-vis  de  vous :" 
say, 


Les  torts  que  j'  ai  envers  vous, 
ou  a  votre  egard. 


The    wrongs  I   have   towards 
you,  or  with  regard  to  you. 


Keep  vis-a-vis  to  express  physical  relations  only  ;  as, 

II  demeure  vis-a-vis  de  mes  fe-  I  He  lives  opposite  to  my  win- 
netres.  dows. 


423 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


SEVENTH. 

In  prose  prefer  avant  de  to  avant  que  de ;  but  in  verse 
the  measure  will  fix  the  choice. 

"  Ciel,  ouvre-moi  la  tombe  avant  de  m'  avilir ; 
De  cent  coups  de  poignard  que  T  infidelle  meure : 
Mais,  avant  de  frapper'-— ah !  cher  ami,  demeure." 

"  Vous  etes  citoyenne  avant  que  d'  etre  mere." 
EIGHTH. 
Many  people  mistake  the  Preposition  pres  for  the  Ad- 
jective prety  s.  M.  prete^  s.  F.  hence  a  gross  counter-sense 
results  ;  as  when  they  say,  "  il  etait  pret  a  tomber,"  for 
"  il  etait  pres  de  tomber ;"  since  prSt  c,  signifies  dispose  c, 
ready  to  ;  and  pres  de^  signifies,  sur  le  point  de,  upon  the 
point  of,  near. 


INSTRUCTION  THE    TWENTY-THIRD. 

OJV  THE  ADVERB, 
RULE  I. 

The  Adverb  must  be,  in  general,  placed  in  a  sentence 
before  the  Adjeclive  or  Fartk-lple  which  it  modifies. 
EXAMPLES. 

We  are  easily  taken  up  with 
various  prospects,  when  we 
enter  into  the  career  of  for- 
tune :  but  when  we  have 
reached  the  highest  prefer- 
ments, the  pleasures  of  ima- 
fc(uiation  end  there. — Such 
we  may  represent  those 
navigators,  who,  after  hav- 
ing vainly  tried  to  open  to 
themselves  a  passage  to  the 
extremities  of  the  world, 
sadly  return  back,  and  con- 
sidering, with  a  sullen  and 
languid  look,  the  various 
sights  of  nature  by  which 
they  had  been  so  lively 
struck,  v/hen  not  long  before 
they  crossed  the  seas  with 
a  mind  governed  by  curiosity 
and  hope. 


On  est  nisement  interesse  par 
des  aspects  divers,  lors  qu' 
on  entre  dans  la  carriere  de 
la  fortune  :  mais  iorsqu'  on 
est  arriv6  aux  plus  h antes 
places,  les  plaisirs  de  1'  ima- 
gination finissent  avec  elles. 
— -Tels  on  croit  voir  ces  na- 
vigateurs  qui  apres  avoir 
vainement  essaye  de  s'  ouv- 
rir  un  passage  aux  extie mi- 
tes du  monde,  retournent 
tristement  sur  leurs  pas,  & 
considerant  d'  un  ceil  morne 
Sclanguissant  les  divers  spec- 
tacles de  la  nature  doiit  ils 
avaient  ele  si  vivement  fiap- 
p^'s;  lorsque  iiaguere  iks  tra- 
versuient  les  mers,  1'  esprit 
vivement  emu  par  la  curio- 
site  &  par  i'  esperance. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


423 


OBSERVATION. 

There  are  circumstances  in  which  taste  alone  can  direct 
the  proper  use  of  the  Adverbs  of  quantity^  which  may  be 
placed  either  befire  or  after  the  AdjeSlivt, — Thus,  one- 
may  say  with  equal  propriety, 

„  \  ,  •.•        f  Bonaparte  is  openly  am- 

Bonaparte  est  <    eux,  ou  ambitieux  K-   i^ijiQus. 
(_    ouvertement,  J 


RULE  II. 

The  Adverb  is,  in  general,  placed  immediately  <7/?er  the 
Verb,  in  its  radical  tenses  ;  or  betzveen  the  past  Participle 
and  the  'Auxiliary,  in  its  compound  tenses. 

EXAMPLES. 


C'est  le  destin  des  choses  hu- 
maines  de  n'  avoir  qu'  une 
duree  courte  &c  rapide,  Sc  de 
tomber  aussitot  dans  1'  eter- 
nel  oubli  d'  ou  elks  etaient 
sorties. — Mais,  votre  Eglise, 
Grand  Dieu  !  mais,  le  chef- 
d'  ceuvre  admirable  de  voire 
sagesse  Sc  de  votre  miseri- 
corde  en  vers  les  hommes  ; 
mais,  votre  empire,  Maitre 
Souverain  des  cceurs  1  n'  au- 
ra point  d'  autres  bornes  que 
celles  de  V  eternite. — Tout 
nous  echappe,  tout  disparait 
sans  cesae  autour  de  nous  ; 
c'  est  une  scene  sur  laquelle, 
a  chaque  instant,  paraissent 
de  nouveaux  personnages 
qui  ce  remplacent  ;  8c  de 
tons  ces  roles  pompeux  qu' 
ils  out  joues,  pendant  le  mo- 
ment qu'  on  les  a  vus  sur  Icur 
theatre,  il  ne  leur  reste  a  la 
Jin  que  le  regret  de  voir  finir 
la  representation  Sc  de  ne  se 
trouver  redlement  que  ce  qu' 
ils  sout  devant  vous. 


It  is  the  fate  of  human  things 
to  have  but  a  short  lived  and 
rapid  duration,  and  to  fall 
instantly  into  that  eternal 
oblivion  from  which  they  had 
come. — But,  your  Church, 
Great  God !  but,  the  admi- 
rable master-piece  of  your 
wisdom  and  mercy  towards 
man  ;  but,  your  empire  So- 
vereign Master  of  hearts  1 
will  have  no  other  limits  but 
those  of  eternity. — Every 
thing  flics  from  us ;  all  va- 
nishes incessantly  around  us; 
it  is  a  scene  on  which  every 
instant  new  performers  ap- 
pear to  succeed  one  another ; 
and  out  of  all  those  pompous 
parts  they  have  played  dur- 
ing the  short  period  they 
were  seen  on  their  theatre, 
nothing  remains  to  them,  in 
the  end,  but  the  rei^ret  to  see 
the  end  of  the  representa- 
tion, and  to  find  thenjSclves 
before  yon,  but  \\hat  they 
really  are. 


424 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


"  II  (Dieu)  precede  les  terns  ;  qui  dira  sa  naissance  ? 
Par  lui  r  homme,  le  ciel,  la  terre,  tout  commence, 
Et  lui  seul  infini,  n*  2i  jamais  commence." 


EXCEPTION. 


In  the  compound  tenses  of  Verbs,  one  may,  however, 
sometimes,  place  the  Adverb^  either  before  or  after  the 
past  Participle. — Custom  alone  will  direct  you  in  that 
respect ;  thus,  one  may  say  equally  well, 


Les  femmes  V  ont  firodigieuse- 
ment  gate,  ou  V  ont  gate  pro- 
digieusement. 


Women     have 
spoiled  him. 


firodigioicsly 


Remark,  that  we  place  either  before  or  after  the  Verb 
the  Adverbs  of  order  and  ranky  and  those  which  denote 
time  in  a  determinate  manner  ;  thus  we  may  say, 


Nous  devons  faire,  premiere- 
ment^  notre  devoir ;  secon- 
dement^  chercher  les  plaisirs 
permis. 

Aujourd'hui  il  fait  beau  ;  il 
pleuvra,  peut-etre,  demain. 


On  servit  d'  abord  la  soupe  Sc 
le  bouilli,  ou  d'  abord  on  ser- 
vit la  soupe  &  le  bouilli. 


We  ought,  Jirst,  to  do  our 
duty  ;  secondly^  love  lawful 
pleasures. 

To-day  it  is  fine  weather  ;  it 
will  rain,  perhaps,  to-mor- 
row. 

The  soup  and  bouilli  were 
served  w^Jirst, 


OBSERVATIONS. 


FIRST. 


DavantagCy  which  many  people  are  apt  to  confound 
with  plus  and  use  for  it,  is,  by  no  means,  a  synonymous 
expression  with  plus  ;  the  following  distinguishes  it  par- 
ticularly from  that  expression. 

1st,  It  will  admit  neither  the  Preposition  de  nor  the 
Conjunction  que  after  it ;  do  not  say  therefore, 


oi  jc  itai-c  lui  j'  aurai  davantage  de  plaisir. 
II  est  aim6  davantage  que  vous.'' 


^*  Si  je  reste  ici 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY.  4%& 

Instead  of  it  in  the  above,  use  plus  ;  thus, 


Si  je  reste  ici,  j'  aurai  filus  de 

plaisir. 
II  est  filus  aime  que  vous. 


If  I  stay    here   I  shall  have 

more  pleasure. 
He  is  more  beloved  than  you. 


2d,  It  is  always  placed  after  the  word  which  it  modi- 
fies and  answers,  in  English,  to  the  more  when  the  more 
is  not  to  be  repeated  ;  say  therefore, 


II  en  sera  aime  davantage — 
(and  not)  II  en  sera  davan- 
tage  aime. 


He  will  be  the  more  loved  for 
it. 


3d,  It  is  never  construed  with  an  AdjeSllve ;  therefore 
do  not  say, 

II  est  davantage  prudent  ou  I  He  is  more  wise, 
prudent  davantage,  \ 

4th,  It  can  never  be  used  in  the  sense  of  le  plus^  (the 
most)  as  many  French  do  ;  therefore  do  not  say, 

De  toutes  les  fleurs  d*  un  par- 
terre, la  rose  est  celle  qui 
me  plait  davantage  ;  (but)  I  Of  all  the  flowers  of  a  parterre 

De  toutes  les  fleurs  d'  un  par-  (      the  rose  pleases  me  7no8t, 
terre,  la  rose  est   celle  qui 
me  plait  le  filua, 

SECOND. 

Autant  and  aussi  are  often  confounded  in  familiar  dis- 
course, as  synonymous  expressions,  which  is  an  error,  as 
they  are  not  so.     Some  French  people  say  for  instance, 

"  Pierre  est  autant  riche  que  Jacques  ;  ou, 
Pierre  est  riche  autant  que  Jacques." 

While  they  should  say, 

Pierre  est  aussi  riche  que  Jac-  I  Peter  is  as  rich  as  James, 
ques.  I 

Should  it  be  required  to  establish  ixcompa7'isonhetwttn 
two  qualities,  we  should  also  make  use  of  aussi  ;  as, 


II  est  aussi  avare  que  soup^on- 
neux. 


He  is  as  avaricious  as    suspi- 
cious. 


426  SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 

In  order  that  autant  may  be  substituted  for  aussi  in  the 
above  phrase,  it  must  be  placed  between  the  two  Adjec- 
tives and  followed  by  que  >   as, 


II  est  avare  autant  que    soup- 
^onneux. 


He  is  as  avaricious   as    suspi- 
cious. 


"  L'  Anglais,  independant  &:  libre  autant  que  brave, 
Des  caprices  de  cour  ne  fut  jamais  esclave.'* 

"  Mais,  Heleuus,  sensible  autant  que  genereux, 
N'  a  jamais  su,  Seigneur,  braver  un  malheureux.'* 

Autant  que  may  also  serve  as  a  connexion  between  two 
phrases,  as, 

Je  r  estime   autant  que   je  T  I  I  esteem  him  as  w2z/€/^  as  I  love 
aime.  J      him. 

When  autant  serves  to  compare  the  merit  oitxvo  actions 
expressed  by  the  Infinitive  of  tvv^o  Verbs,  one  must  not 
fail  of  joining  the  Preposition  de  to  the  que\Y\nch.  precedes 
the  second  action — Hence,  the  following  phrases,  where 
this  Preposition  is  omitted^  are  incorrect. 

II  vaut  autant  ecrire  que  parler, 

J'  aime  autant  le  faire  tout  a  T  heure  que  dilFerer. 

One  must  say, 


11  vaut   autant  ecrire    que    de 

parler. 
J*  aime  autant  le  faire  tout  a 

r  heure  que  de  differer. 


It  is  as  well  to  write  as  to 
speak. 

I  like  as  well  to  do  it  immedi- 
ately as  to  procrastinate. 


Autant  does  not  modify  an  Adverb — Therefore  the  fol- 
lowing sentence  is  incorrect. 


lis  les  regalerent  autant  hien 
que  pouvait  le  permettre  la 
pauvrete  de  leurpays. 


They  treated  them  as  well  as 
the  poverty  of  their  country 
would  allow. 


From  what  precedes  we  shall  establish  as    a  principle 
the  difference  between  aussi  and  autant  to  be  as  follows  ; 

Aussi  is  the  proper  modificative  of  an  Adverb^  and  never 
of  the  quality  expressed  in  the  Verb.     Autant  never  modi- 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


43f 


fies  the  Adverb,  and  seldom  the  quality  ;  and  when  it 
does,  it  must  be  followed  by  que  and  placed  between  the' 
two  AdjeBives  it  modifies.  Autant  modifying  the  quality 
expressed  in  the  Verb,  must  be  followed  then  by  que  de 
or  simply  que^  according  as  the  Verb  is  or  is  not  in  the 
Infinitive  mood. — When  autant  is  used  to  express  a  compQ" 
rison^  the  que^  which,  in  the  above  cases,  is  inseparable 
from  autant^  is  supplied  by  de^  and  is  placed  between  the 
two  objects  compared,  or  relating  to  each  other. 

EXAMPLES. 


II  a  autant  de  vertu  que  de 
talens. 

Cette  piece  de  vers  offre  autant 
dc  beaut6s  qu*  aucune  piece 
quelconque  de  Voltaire. 

L'  armee  de  Leonidas,  com- 
posee  de  trois  cents  hom- 
mes,  avait  autant  de  heros 
que  de  soldats. 


He  has  aa  much  virtue  as  ta- 
lents. 

This  piece  of  poetry  offers  as 
many  beauties  as  any  piece 
of  Voltaire. 

The  army  of  Leoni'das,  com- 
posed of  three  hundred  men, 
had  as  many  heroes  as  sol- 
diers. 


There  are  several  authors  that  have  made  use  of  autant 
commey  instead  of  autant  que* 

EXAMPLES. 


lis  etaient  courageux  autant 
comme  les  meilleurs  soldats 
de  r  Empire. 

Le  vrai  brave  conserve  son 
jugment  au  milieu  du  peril 
avec  autant  de  presence  d' 
esprit  comme  s*  il  n'  y  etait 
pas. 


They  were  as  courageous 
as  the  best  soldiers  of  the 
Empire. 

The  truly  brave '  keeps  up  his 
judgment  amidst  danger, 
with  as  much  presence  of 
mind  as  if  he  were  not  in  it. 


It  is  a  mistake,  and  to  rectify  it,  que  must  be  substituted 
for  comme*  It  is  also  a  mistake  to  use  comme  after  aussl^ 
as  in  the  following  sentence. 

"  Tant  qu'  a  dure  la  guerre  on  m'  a  vu  constamment 
Aussi  bon  citoyen  com?ne  fidele  amant." 

^ce  should  have  been  used  instead  of  comme^  but  the 
line  would  be  deficient  in  one  svllable. 


VOL.    II. 


I  1 1 


428 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


Instead  of  autant  we  make  use  of  tant^  when  there  is  no 


comparison.,  as, 

II  a  tant  de  richesses  qu'  on  ne 

saurait  les  compter. 
Cette  piece  de  vers  offre  tant 

de  beautes  que  je   1'   aurais 

crue  de  Voltaire. 


He  has  so  much  wealth  that 
it  cannot  be  reckoned. 

This  piece  of  poetry  presents 
80  many  beauties,  that  I 
would  have  thought  it  was 
Voltaire's. 


THIRD. 


Si  (so)  is  used  to  give  some  extension  to  a  qualification 
and  not,  in  general,  to  express  a  comparison- 


EXAMPLES. 


11  est  si  bon  qu'  il  n^a  pas  son 

pareil. 
Un  corps  si  faible  ne  saurait 

resister  a  la  fatigue. 
EHe  vous  aime  si  tendrement 

que  vous  ne  pouvez  vous  de- 

fendre  du  retour. 
II  n'  est  pas  si  fin  qu'  on  ne 

puisse  bien  le  jouer. 


He  is  so  good  that  nobody  is 
like  him. 

So  weakly  a  body  cannot  with- 
stand fatigue. 

She  loves  you  so  tenderly  that 
you  cannot  help  loving  her 
in  return. 

He  is  not  so  cunning  but  some 
tricks  may  be  played  upon 
him . 


In  the  above  phrases  it  would  be  an  egregious  blunder 
to  use  aussi  instead  of  si — Aussi  should  be  used  only  when 
a  comparison  is  made,  and  there  is  none  in  the  above 
examples. 

Some  authors,  and  the  French  Academy,  are  of  opinion, 
that  si  may  be  used  as  an  Adverb  of  comparison^  when 
attended  with  a  negative  :  so  that  one  may  say  with  equal 
propriety, 


II  «'  est  pas  si  ou  aussi  avance 

qu'  il  le  parait. 
II  n*  est  pas  si  ou  aussi  estime 

que  lui. 


He  is  not  so  forward  as  he  ap- 
pears to  be. 

He  is  not  as  much  esteemed  as 
he. 


For  my  part,  from  attentive  reading  of  the  most  polish- 
ed writers,  I  have  observed  that  many  would  prefer  aussi 
in  the  above  examples.  Several  excellent  grammatical 
avithoritjes  are   also  for  giving  a  decided  preferrence  to 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


459 


aussi,  in  the  case  of  a  comparison  ;  and  for  not  using  sty 
when  a  comparison  is  expressed,  which  establishes  a  strik- 
ing difference  between  aussi  and  si  :  the  former  being  an 
Adverb  of  comparison  ;  the  latter  an  Adverb  used  only 
when  it  is  necessary  to  extend  a  qualiji cation. 


FOURTH. 


When  we  wish  to  raise  a  qualification  by  a  comparison^ 
sometimes  we  are  at  a  loss  whether  to  make  use  of 
plus^  or  mieux  before  it.  In  this  case,  the  attention 
ought  to  be  directed  to  the  qualif  cation.  If  it  be  sus- 
ceptible of  extention,  plus  must  be  used.  If  it  be  suscep- 
tible of  improvement,  mieux  must  be  used.  Thus,  plus 
is  used  in  the  following  phrases,  because  the  quality  is 
extended. 


Guillaume  est  plus  leger  a  la 

course  qu'  Etienne. 
Marie  est  filtcs  laborieuse  que 

Sylvie. 


William  is  more  nimble  in  the 

race  than  Stephen. 
Maria  is  more  industrious  than 

Sylvia. 


And  mieux,  in  the  following  phrases,  because  the  quali- 
ty is  susceptible  of  perfeSlion, 


Julie    est   mieux      faite    que 

Jeanne. 
Palmyre  eist   mieux  mise  qu' 

Elizabeth. 


Julia  is  better  made  than  Joan. 

Palmyra  is  Ae/Zer  dressed  than 
Elizabeth. 


In  the  following  sentence  plus  and  mieux  are  both  used 
in  their  natural  acceptation. 


L'  Abbe  Prevot  a  fdus  ecrit 
que  Fenelon  ;  mais  Fenelon 
a  mieux  ecrit  que  1'  Abbe 
Prevot. 


The  Abbe  Prevot  has  written 
more  than  Fenelon  ;  but  Fe- 
lon has  written  better  than 
the  Abbe  Prevot. 


In  the  frst  member  plus  relates  to  the  number  of  vo- 
lumes ;  and  mieuxy  in  the  second,  relates  to  the  perfedlion 
of  style. 


430 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


The  following  is  to  acquaint  you  with  a  mistake  but  too 
common  in  French,  against  which  you  should  take  care 
to  guard. 


J'  ai  gagne  mieux  de  cent  fiches 

au  jeu. 
C  est  une  terre  qui  vaut  mieux 

de  cent  mille  livresde  rente. 


I  have  won  viore  than  one 
hundred  fishes  at  play. 

It  is  an  estate  which  is  worth 
more  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand livres  a  year. 


Plus  must  be  substituted  for  mieux^  to  render  the  above 
J)hrases  correct. 

I  will  conclude  by  observing  that  w^hen  better^  in  Eng- 
lish, is  followed  by  two  Infinitives,  the  Verb  correspond- 
ing to  the  second  must  be  preceded,  in  French,  by  the 
Preposition  de. 


La  maxime  des  paresseux  est 
celle  des  habitans  de  1'  In- 
dostan  ;  qu'  il  vaut  misux 
s'  assoir  que  de  marcher ; 
se  coiicher  que  de  s'  assoir; 
dormir  que  de  veiller  ;  Sc 
mourir  que  de  vivre. 


The  maxim  of  the  lazy,  is 
that  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Indostan  ;  that  it  is  better 
to  sit  down  than  to  -walk ; 
to  lie  down  than  to  sit;  to 
sleep  than  to  watch ;  and  to 
die  than  to  live. 


FIFTH. 

if  que  follows  the  Adverbs  phiSy  mains,  mieux,  pis,  au- 
trement ;  the  Adjectives  meilleur,  moindre,  pire,  autre', 
the  Verbs  emp-cher,  craindre,  avoir-peur,  apprehendtr, 
prendre  garde ;  and  the  conjunctions  de  crainte  que,  de 
peur  que ;  ne  should  always  be  placed  between  it  and  the 
succeeding  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 


Les  louanges  sont  plus  utiles 
qu'  on  ne  se  1'  imagine  : 
comme  le  vin  elles  fortifi- 
ent  quand  elles  n'  enivrent 
pas. 


Praises  are  more  useful  than 
one  thinks :  like  wine,  they 
are  strengthening  when  they 
do  not  intoxicate. 


Voltaire  has  therefore  committed  a  ?nistake,  when,  in 
Orestes  he  makes  Electra  say  to  the  Furies  ; 

"  Accourez  de  1'  enfer  en  ces  horribles  lieuz, 
En  ces  lieux/i/w«  cruels  he  plus  rempiis  de  crimes 
Que  vos  gouffres  profonds  (*)  regorgent  de  victimes." 

*  ^e  should  have  been  used  here  before  regorgent ,-  but  the  line  would 
have  been  dejicient  in  its  measure. 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


431 


Les  gens  qui  s'  expriment  avec 
le  plus  de  facilite,  sont  quel- 
quefois  souvcnt  beaucoup 
7wom«instruitsqu*onnepense 

II  se  porte  beaucoup  mieiLv 
qu'  il  ne  fesait. 

C  est  bien  /lis  qu'  on  ne  V  a 
dit,  ma  foi ! 

La  chose  est  tout  aut7'e?ne?it 
que  vous  ne  le  croyez. 

II  n'  est  pas  rneilleur  ecolier 
qu'  il  n*  etait. 

Cette  somme  n'  est  pas  moin- 
dre  qu'  elle  n'  etait. 

Les  passions  nous  font  voir 
souvent  les  objets  tout  au- 
trea  qu'  ils  ne  sont. 

Lorsqu'  on  vous  flatte,  afifire- 
hendez  qu'  on  ne  vous  trom- 
pe. 

Lors  meme  que  vous  louez  un 
homme  vain,  il  est  a  crain- 
dre  qu'  il  ne  soit  tres-mecon- 
tent  de  vous  ;  car  si  vous 
restez  en  de9a  de  1'  opinion 
qu'  il  a  de  lui-meme,  il 
oubliera  ce  que  vous  lui 
avez  dit,  pour  ne  penser 
qu'  a  ce  que  vous  auriez  du 
lui  dire. 

Un  homme  d'  esprit  conseil- 
lait  k  son  ami  de  ne  se  faire 
jamais  attendre,  de  fieur  que, 
ou  de  crainte  que-^  celui  qui 
r  attendrait  n'  eut  le  terns 
de  faire  1'  enumeration  de 
ses  d^fauts. 


People  who  express  them- 
selves with  most  ease,  ar'e 
sometimes  much  less  en- 
lightened than  we  think. 

He  is  much  better  than  he 
was. 

It  is  much  ivorse  than  it  has 
been  said,  faith  ! 

The  thing  is  quite  otherivise 
than  what  you  believe. 

He  is  not  a  better  scholar 
than  he  was. 

This  sum  is  not  less  than  it 
was. 

Passions  often  make  us  see 
objects  quite  different  from 
what  they  are. 

When  you  are  flattered,  fear 
lest  you  should  be  de- 
ceived. 

Even  when  you  praise  a  vain 
man,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
he  will  be  very  much  dis- 
pleased at  you  ;  for,  if  you 
fall  short  of  the  good  opinion 
he  has  conceived  of  himself, 
he  will  forget  what  you  have 
told  him,  to  think  only  of 
what  you  should  have  told 
him. 

A  man  of  understanding  ad- 
vised one  of  his  friends 
never  to  cause  himself  to  be 
waited  for,  yor  fear,  or  lest, 
he  who  would  wait  for  him 
should  have  time  to  make 
an  enumeration  of  dX\  his 
defects. 


It  is  essential  to  remark,  that,  if  the  above  Verbs  em," 
pecher,  &c.  intervene  between  the  negatives  ne  &  pas,  or 
ne  h  point,  the  negative  ne  can  no  longer  be  used  after 
the  que, — Hence  Racine  committed  an  error,  when  he 
said, 

"  Vous  souffrez  qu'  il  vous  parle  Sc  vous  ne  crai^ez  pas, 
Que  du  fond  de  1'  abyme  entr'  ouvert  sous  vos  pas, 
Il  ne  sorte  a  1*  instant  des  feux  qui  vous  embrascnt, 
Ou  qu'  en  tombant  sur  lui,  ces  murs  ne  vous  ecrasent.'* 


4S2 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


SIXTH. 


Pas  &  point  are  suppressed — 1st,  htiovt  jamais^  gu^re^ 
&  plus^  when  they  are  intended  to  express  time;  before  nul^ 
aucun,  ricn,  personne^  nullement^  and  que^  in  the  expression 
ne  que,  meaning  seulement. 


EXAMPLES. 


Un  lache  pent  combattre  ;  im 
lache  pent  meme  vaincre  ; 
mais  un  lache  ne  \)twX.  jamais 
pardonner,  dit  Addison. 


A  coward  may  fight ;  a  cow- 
ard may  even  conquer ;  but 
a  coward  can  n€x>er  forgive, 
says  Addison. 


P  en  suis  assez  punie — II  est  done  des  forfaits 
Que  le  courroux  des  Dieux  ne  pan^onneyamaz*. 


i  w'  a  guere  d'  argent  a  depen- 

ser. 
II  w*  a  guere  reste  aupres  de 

vous. 
II  n'  tst  plus  en  ville,  j'  en  suis 

sur. 


He    has   dui   little   money   to 

spend. 
He  did  noi  stay  long  with  you. 

He  is  no  longer  in  town,  I  am 
sure. 


"  C*  en  est  fait,  mes  amis,  il  n'  est  plus  de  patrie, 
Plus  de  honneur,  plus  de  lois,  Rome  est  aneantie.' 


Ce   n'  est  V  opinion  de  nul  d' 

entr'  eux. 
e  ne  V  ai  communique  a  nul 

de    ceux   qui  pouvaient  en 

abuser. 
Je   ne  connais   aiicun    de    ces 

Messieurs. 
Qui  n'  a  besoin  de  rien   w'  est 

jamais  pauvre. 


It  is  the  opinion  of  none  of 
them. 

I  have  communicated  it  to  none 
of  those  who  might  have 
made  a  bad  use  of  it. 

I  know  71071C  of  those  Gentle- 
men. 

He  who  wants  nothing  is 
never  poor. 


There  is  an  example  of  rien^  attended  by  its  negative  in 
the  following  epitaph  of  La  Fontaine,  written  by  himself. 


"  Jean  s'  en  alia  comme  il  etait  venu, 
Mangeant  son  fonds  apres  son  re  venu, 
Et  crut  les  biens  chose  pen  necessaire. 
Quant  a  sort  terns,  bien  sut  le  dispenser, 
Deux  parts  en  fit,  dont  il  voulait  passer, 
L*  une  a  dormir,  &  V  autre  a  ne  rien  faire." 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY 


433 


J'  avoue  que  'jene  m'  attendais 
nulkment  a  cette  bonne  au- 
baine. 

Je  ne  vis  fiersonne  qui  put  en 
venir  a  bout. 

II  faut,  disait  Chilon,  oublier 
le  bien  qu'  on  fait  aux  autres 
&  ne  se  ressouvenir  que  de 
celui  qu'  on  recoit. 


I  confess  that  I  did  not  expect 
that  good  luck  in  the  least* 

I  saw  nobody  that  could  bring 
it  about. 

We  ought,  said  Chilon,  to 
forget  the  good  we  do  to 
others,  and  remember  only 
that  which  we  receive. 


2d,  After  the   Verbs    oser^    cesser^    pouvoir  and   sa- 
voir  followed  by  si. 

EXAMPLES. 


Vos  Saints,  Grand  Dieu  !  ont 
paru  intrepides  devant  les 
tyrans  ;  ils  vous  ont  confesse 
au  milieu  des  roues  8c  des 
feux  ;  &  je  n'  oserais  vous 
rendre  gloire,  au  milieu  de 
votre  peuple,  par  la  crainte 
de  quelques  censures  !  Je 
ne  ccsserai  de  vous  benir 
publiquement,  puisquc  vous 
ne  cesaez  vous-meme  de  me 
combler  de  vos  saintes  bene- 
dictions. C  est  vous  pro- 
mettre  un  culte  aussi  dura- 
ble que  votre  eternelle  pro- 
vidence. Je  ne  fiuia  rappe- 
ler,  Grand  Dieu  !  1'  exces 
de  vos  mis^ricordes,  sans 
rappeler,  en  m^me  terns, 
r  exces  honteux  de  mes  de- 
sordres. 

Je  ne  sals  s'  il  ira  vous  voir. 


Your  Saints,  Great  God  !  have 
shown  intrepidity  before 
tyrants  ;  they  have  avowed 
you  in  the  midst  of  fires  and 
tortures  on  the  wheels  ; 
and  1  would  not  dare  to  glo- 
rify you,  in  the  midst  of 
your  people,  through  the 
fear  of  a  few  censures !  I 
will  not  cease  to  bless  you 
publickly,  since  you  do  not 
cease  to  load  me  with  your 
holy  blessings.  It  is  promis- 
ing you  a  worship  as  lasting 
as  your  eternal  providence. 
I  cannot^  Great  God  I  recall 
the  excess  of  your  mercies, 
without  recalling,  at  the 
same  time,  the  shameful  ex- 
cess of  my  disorderly  life. 


I  do  not  knoiu  whether  he  will 
go  to  see  you. 

I  will  conclude  this  account  of  the  Adverb  by  observ- 
ing that  the  negatives  pas  &  point  are  not  entirely  syno- 
nymous, and  by  establishing,  with  Girard,  their  true  dif- 
ference. 

Pas  expresses  simply  the  negation. 

Point  expresses  it  in  a  strong  and  undeniable  manner. 

The  former  often  denies  the  thing  but  partly^  or  with 
modification.  The  second  denies  it  ahvays  in  an  absolute 
manner,  totally^  and  without  reserve. — This  is  the  reason 


4S4 


SYNTAX  MADE  EASY. 


why  the  one  is  very  well  placed  before  modifications, 
while  the  other  would  appear  there  with  a  very  bad  grace. 

Thus  we  can  say  with  paSy 

II  n'  a  fias  meme  le   neces-  1  He    has  not   even  a   compe- 
saire.  j      tency. 

But  if  you  would  make  use  of  pointy  the  modification 
should  be  suppresned^  and  you  should  say, 

II  n'  a  point  le  necessaire. 

This  is  also  the  reason  that  pas  is  always  used  with 
words  which  serve  to  express  the  degree  of  quality  or 
quantity;  such  as  beaucoup^  fi^^t  tres^  bien^  un  and  the 
like. — That  point  suits  better  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
before  the  Preposition  de^  with  du  tout^  which,  instead 
of  limiting  the  negative,  confirms  the  totality  thereof. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  FJS, 


Pour  r  ordinaire,  il  w'  y  a  fiaa 
beaucoup  d'  argent  chez  les 
gens  de  lettres. 

La  plupart  des  philosophes  ne 
sont  pas  fort  raisonnables. 

Qm  n*  a  pas  un  sou  a  depen- 
ser,  n'  a  pas  un  grain  de  me- 
rite  a  faire  paraitre. 


Commonly,  men  of  letters 
have  7io£  much  money. 

The  greatest  part  of  philoso- 
phers are  not  very  reasona- 
ble. 

He  has  not  a  grain  of  sense  to 
show,  who  has  ?iot  a  penny 
to  spend. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  FOIJSrT. 


Si  pour  avoir  du  bien,  il  en 
coute  a  la  probite,  je  n*  en 
veux  point. 

II  7i'  y  a  point  de  ressource 
dans  une  personne  qui  n'  a 
point  d'  esprit. 

Rien  n*  est  stir  avec  les  capri- 
cieux  :  vous  croyez  etre 
bien  ;  point  du  tout ;  V  in- 
stant de  la  plus  belle  hu- 
meur  est  suivie  de  la  plus 
facheuse. 


If  to  obtain  property,  probity 
must  be  sacrificed,  I  do  not 
want  any. 

There  is  no  resource  in  an  in- 
dividual deficient  in  under- 
standing. 

Nothing  is  sure  with  caprici- 
ous people  :  you  think  you 
are  on  good  terms;  by  nn 
means:  the  moment  when 
they  are  in  the  best  humour 
is  followed  by  the  worst. 


THE  EJVD. 


SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON, 

President  of  the   United  States  of  America, — 6  copies. 

The  liberal  Editors  of  News-Papers,  whose  zeal  for  the  pro- 
gress of  useful  science  in  our  country,  has  induced  them  to  pub- 
lish, free  of  expense,  the  Proposals  for  this  work,  are,  not  only- 
considered  by  the  Author  as  entitled  to  a  copy  each,  but  their 
names,  as  the  expression  of  his  gratitude,  set  down  as  subscri- 
bers, viz. 

Bronson  &  Chauncey,  Gazette  U.  S.  Philadelphia. 
Black,  William,  Editor  of  the  Federal  Ark,  Wilmington. 
Dobbins,  Thomas,  Telegraph,  Baltimore. 
Lyon  8c  Morse,  Georgia  Republican,  Savannah. 
Marschalk,  Andrew,  Missisippi  Herald,  Natchez. 
Puglia,  James,  Phoenix  of  Harrisburgh. 

Pennington,  Sentinel  of  Freedom,  Newark. 

Rind,  Wm.  A.  Washington  Federalist,  Washington. 
Smith,  Sam.  Harrison,  National  InteUigencer,     do. 
Wilson  James,  Mirror  of  the  Times,  Wilmington. 


Arden,  Miss  Louisa  A. 

New  York, 

N.  Y. 

Arden,  Thos.  L.   12 

copies, 

do. 

do. 

Afcambal,  L. 

do. 

do. 

Agnel,  P.  C. 

do. 

do. 

Aird,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Akin,  John, 

Poughkeepsie  co. 

do. 

Annin,  Joseph, 

Cayuga  Bridge, 

do. 

Anderson,  Hon.  Joseph,     . 

T. 

Anderson,  Leroy,  p. 

,   M. 

Williamsburgh, 

Va. 

Anderson,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Anderson,  John  B. 

do. 

do. 

Alexander,  Isaac, 

Charlotte, 

N.  C, 

Allison,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Appling,  William, 

Columbia  co. 

Ga. 

Appling,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Arnold,  Joseph, 

Savannah, 

do. 

VOL.    II. 

K 

k  k 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Ancelin,  Mr. 

AUinson,  David,  6  copies, 

Archer,  B.  Harris,  m.  d. 

AUinder,  Jos.  m.  d. 

Aiken,  Geo. 

Anderson,  J.  I. 

Amory,  N. 

Abercrombie,  Rev.  Jas.  a.  m. 

Auriol,  Augustus, 

Andrews,  Robert, 

Alberti,  Georges  F.  m.  d. 

Atkinson,  Mathew, 

Albrecht,  F.  m.  d* 


Bordley,  Miss  Eliza, 

Beck,  Mrs. 

Bradford,  Samuel,  15  copies, 

Brognard,  John  S.  2  do. 

Binghurst,  John  G. 

Bazeley,  Wm.  E. 

Bleight,  Samuel, M.D. 

Bache,  Richard, 

Brugiere,  Charles, 

Badaraque,  Theodore,. 

Barton,  B.  m.  d. 

Bousquet,  Augustine, 

Barkley,  E.  m.  d. 

Butler,  John, 

Banks,  Henry,  2  copies. 

Banks,  Gerard,  2  do. 

Brockenbrough,  W. 

Brook,  Francis, 

Bartee,  Wm. 

Bright,  Solomon,  p.  m. 

Bright,  James, 

Bright,  Wm. 

Bright,  John, 

Bright,  Henry, 

Bataile,  L. 

Broaddus,  Christopher  G. 

Bankhead,  John,  m.  d. 

Bernard,  Wm.  2  copies. 

Brown,  John, 

Blow,  Geo. 

Baker,  Jerman, 

Brown,  Samuel, 


Princeton, 

N.J. 

Burlington, 

do. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Washington  City, 

C.T. 

New  Orleans, 

La. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Northumberland, 

do. 

Harrisburgh, 

do. 

>• 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Richmond, 

Va. 

Louisa  CO. 

do. 

Richmond, 

do. 

Fredericksburgh, 

do. 

New-Bridge, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Princess  Ann, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Bowling-Green, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Port  Royal, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Staunton, 

do. 

Norfolk, 

do. 

Cumberland, 

do. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

SUBSCRIBERS*  NAMES. 


Blaud,  Theodorick, 

do. 

do. 

Borland,  Thomas, 

do. 

do. 

Belton,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Buckanan,  J.  A. 

do. 

do. 

Bond,  Thomas  E. 

do. 

do. 

Blair,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Barry,  Garrett, 

do. 

do. 

Burk,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Boland,  Alexander,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Buchanan,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Boure,  Washington, 

Georgetown, 

do. 

Black,  Thomas  W.  m.  d. 

Charlestown, 

do. 

Brye,  J.  Robert, 

Annapolis, 

do. 

Buchanan,  Thomas, 

do. 

do. 

Boyle,  E.  M. 

Washington  City, 

C.  T. 

Blodget,  Samuel, 

Washington, 

do. 

Bush,  David, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Bolitho,  Benjamin, 

New-Castle, 

do. 

Barratt,  John, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Boudinot,  Tobias, 

Burlington, 

do. 

Bloomfield,  Jos. 

Trenton, 

do. 

Baldwin,  David  C. 

Newark, 

do. 

Blair,  Hugh, 

Columbia  co. 

Ga. 

Baldwin,  A. 

Augusta, 

do. 

Bolton,  Curtis, 

Savannah, 

do. 

Berrien,  I.  Macpherson, 

do. 

do. 

Bogardus,  William  W. 

Poughkeepsie, 

N.Y. 

Brush,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Bockel,  Abraham, 

do. 

do. 

Bird  sail,  Lewis, 

Cayuga-Bridge, 

do. 

Buckley,  Hugh, 

do. 

do. 

Bowden,  John,D.  d.  2  copies. 

New-York, 

do. 

Blancard,  Samuel, 

do. 

do. 

Bockman,  J.  K. 

do. 

do. 

Bosse,  J.  L.  jun. 

Newport, 

R.  I. 

Beck,  J.  E. 

Fayetteville, 

N.  C. 

Blount,  Thomas  H. 

Washington, 

do. 

Bowman,  Samuel, 

Charlotte, 

do. 

Beaty,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Brown,  James  Noice, 

do. 

do. 

Butler,  Hon.  William, 

Edgefield, 

S.  C. 

Bangs,  Edward, 

Worcester, 

Ms. 

Benade,  Andrew,  3  copies. 

Bethlehem, 

Pa. 

Brown,  Hon.  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Boggs,  William, 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Brendle,  William, 

Harrisburgh, 

do. 

Bates,  Tarleton, 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Brown,  Samuel, 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES.. 


Buntin,  Robert, 
Beckez,  Benjamin, 
Bullitt,  William,  jun. 


Carol],  J.  R.  C  Bishop, 
Clandinen,  Adam,  m.  d. 
Coates,  Samuel,  m.  d. 

Chatard, m.  d. 

Combs,  Samuel, 
Cochran,  William  C.  &  co. 
Caldwell,  John, 
Claude,  Abraham, 
Chase,  Richard  M. 
Cist,  Jacob, 
Coningham,  Cornelius, 
Cliosophic  Society, 
Colston,  Edward, 
Chrystie,  John, 
Carter,  Sandon, 
Cadwallader,  Lambert, 
Cumrning,  John  N. 
Crawford  Nathan, 
Crawford,  Joel, 
Catonnet,  P. 
Cowling,  John  G. 
Cropsey,  Jasper, 
Crolius,  Clarkson, 
Campbell,  W^illiam, 
Campan,  I.  F. 
Crommeline,  James, 
Cochran,  Robert, 
Campbell,  Green  H. 
Carrington,  Charles, 
Cowan,  David, 
Clark,  Jones, 
Creyon.  John  William, 
Casey,  Hon.  Levy, 
Cox,  N. 
Clay,  Porter, 

Collins,  Rev.  Nicholas,  r.  s. 
Carey,  Mathew,  16  copies, 
Conrad  Sc  co.        15     do. 
Collins  Sc  CO.         lii     do. 
Carr,  Rev.  Mathew, 
Cooper,  Rev.  Ezek. 
Coxe,  Tench, 
Church,  John,  m.  d. 


Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Annapolis, 

do. 

do 

do. 

Washington  City, 

C.  T. 

do. 

do. 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Trenton, 

do. 

Newark, 

do. 

Columbia  co. 

Ga. 

Augusta, 

do. 

Savannah, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

New  York, 

N.Y. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Fayetteville, 

N.  C. 

do. 

do. 

Washington, 

do. 

Charlotte, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Columbia, 

S.  C. 

Newbury, 

do. 

Lexington, 

Ry. 

do. 

do. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

dot 

do. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Carpentier,  L.  D. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Creyon,  Thomas  W.  H. 

do. 

do 

Chaudron,  J.  S. 

do. 

do 

Caldwell,  Charles,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Conover,  Samuel  F.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Chandler,  Samuel, 

Germ  an  town. 

do. 

Conrad,  Hon.  Frederick, 

Montgomery  cq. 

do. 

Culbertson,  James, 

Canonsburg, 

do 

Cochran,  Georges, 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Cramer,  Tadoh,  2  copies, 

do. 

do. 

Craig,  Isaac, 

do. 

do. 

Canington,  P. 

Charlotte, 

Va. 

Coleman,  Samuel, 

Richmond, 

do. 

Currie,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Copland,  Charles, 

do. 

do. 

Carter,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Carter,  Gilford, 

Fredericksburgh, 

do. 

Coleman,  Benjamin  W, 

Bowling-Green, 

do. 

Coleman,  Daniel, 

do. 
D. 

Baltimore, 

do. 

Dubourg,  Rev.  William, 

Md. 

Ducatel,  Edme,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Duncan,  L.  M.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Delaporte,  F. 

do. 

do. 

Delaplaine,  J. 

Washington  City, 

C.T. 

Dickinson,  John,  2  copies, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Dodge,  Rev.  Daniel, 

do. 

do. 

Darlington,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Daniel,  Peter, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Dick,  Archibald, 

do. 

do. 

Dusenbury,  Caleb, 

do. 

do. 

Duncan,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

De  Viar,  Jos.  Ignace, 

Trenton, 

do. 

Dickerson,  Aaron, 

Morristown, 

do. 

Dornin,  Bernard,  2  copies, 

New-York, 

N.Y. 

Devilleret,  Mr. 

do. 

do. 

Dalzel,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Durell,  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Duross,  Mr. 

do. 

do. 

Dobbins,  Leo. 

Pittsburg, 

Pa. 

Dunlap,  Joseph, 

Canonsburg, 

do. 

De  Benneville,  Daniel, 

do. 

Du  Ponceau,  Peter,  S. 

Philadelphia, 

do. 

D'Orlic,  Mr. 

do. 

do. 

Desauque,  Lewis, 

do. 

do. 

Dalligny,  Mr. 

do. 

do. 

SUBSCllIBERS'  NAMES. 


Dfescuret,  Lewis, 

Philadelphia, 

l»a. 

Dewees,  W.  P.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Doran,  John, 

do. 

d6. 

Davis,  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Davis,  Edward, 

Richmond, 

Va. 

Duval,  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Henly,  Barthw.  D. 

Williamsburg, 

do. 

Decker,  Luke, 

Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

Dubois,  Toussaint, 

do. 

do. 

Dean,  David  C. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

Downing,  Samuel, 

do. 

do. 

Daveiss,  Joseph  Hamilton, 

do. 

do. 

Dickson,  Wm.  p.  m. 

Greenville, 
E. 
Baltimore, 

T. 

Edwards,  Jon. 

Md. 

Eddy,  Thomas, 

New-York, 

N.Y. 

Ellery,  Wm. 

Newport, 

R.L 

Easton,  Edward,  Jun. 

do. 

do. 

Early,  Hon.  Peter, 

Augusta, 

Ga. 

Early,  Clement,  2  copies. 

do. 

do. 

Edwards,  Wm. 

Saundersville, 

do. 

Earle,  Hon.  J.  B. 

Pendleton  district, 

S.C. 

Eustis  Hon.  William, 

Boston, 

Ms. 

Elder,  Jacob, 

Harrisburg, 

Pa. 

Jldmondson,  John, 

Staunton, 

Va. 

Edwards,  Richard, 

Williamsburg, 
F. 

Leonardtown, 

do. 

Fenwick,  Athanas, 

Md. 

Finister,  Alex. 

Baltimore, 

do. 

Foard,  J.  Rasin, 

do. 

do. 

Fox,  Thomas, 

#        ^^' 

do 

Field,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Frick,  John,              '-'  ' 

do. 

do. 

Forbes,  John,  jun. 

do. 

do. 

Fowler,  Theod. 

New- York, 

N.Y. 

Flagg,  Samuel, 

Worcester, 

Ms. 

Fraisier,  Ignace,  12  copies. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Fortune,  Mich. 

do. 

do. 

Eager,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Ferguson,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Fox,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Fahnestock,  Henry, 

Harrisburg, 

do. 

Frazer,  W.  C. 

New-Castle, 

D. 

Ferrell,  Keeling, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Frelinghuysen,  Theod. 

Princeton, 

N.J^ 

Finley,  Mich.  A. 

do. 

do. 

Farrow,  John  W. 

do. 

do. 

Flinn  Rev.  Andrew, 

Fayetteville, 

N.C. 

Frew,  Archibald,  p.  m.  2  copies,  Charlotte, 

do. 

Flinn,  Joseph, 

do. 

do^ 

Fasley,  Francis, 

do. 

do. 

Fleming,  VVm. 

Chesterfield, 

Va. 

Fitzhugh,  Nichs. 

Fairfax  county, 

do. 

Fairchild,  Lewis, 

Savannah, 
G. 

Baltimore, 

Ga. 

Gevaudan,  Mrs.  Rose, 

Md. 

do. 

do. 

Gooding,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Gwynn,  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Golden,  A. 

Annapolis, 

do. 

Gassaway,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Gassaway,  Henry, 

Arundel  co. 

do. 

Gilmore,  Wm. 

Taney  ton, 

do. 

Glover,  Charles, 

Washington  city, 

C.  T. 

Grenier,  Gabriel, 

New-York, 

N.  Y. 

Gillepsie,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Giraud,  M.  A.  A. 

Boston, 

Ms. 

Gardner,  Jesse  B. 

Saundersville, 

Ga. 

Grandmaison,  P. 

Savannah, 

do. 

Gibson,  James, 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Gerhard,  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Gardette,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Guieu,  E,  and  I.  Bion,  2  copies,          do. 

do. 

Girard,  Stephen, 

do. 

do. 

Green,  Rev.  Ashbel,  d.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Griffitts,  Samuel  P.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Gibbons,  Wm.  jun. 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Gibson,  Edward  R. 

do. 

do. 

Gibbes,  Mrs.  Ann, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Grant,  Ebenezer, 

New-Brunswick, 

do. 

Grandmont,  I.  P.  R. 

Trenton, 

do. 

Garrett,  Henry, 

New-Brunswick, 

do. 

Guthrie,  J.  W. 

Washington, 

N.C. 

Griew,  Thomas, 

Charlotte, 

do. 

Gibson,  Patrick, 

Richmond, 

Va. 

Grymes,  P.  jun. 

do. 

do. 

Griffin,  Hon.  Thomas, 

Yorktown, 

do. 

Gray,  Hon.  Edwin, 

Jerusalem, 

do. 

Goodwin,  Hon.  Peterson, 

Dinwiddie  co. 

do. 

Garnett,  James  M. 

Essex  CO. 

do. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Garber,  Mich.  jun. 
Girardin,  L.  H. 
Grayson,  Alfred  Wm. 

Graham,  Rev. ■- 

Gibson,   John,  sen. 
Gibson,  John,  jun. 


H 


Hammond,  W. 

Holland,  L. 

Heeks,  James, 

Hanson,  A.  C. 

Hayes,  R. 

Hintze,  Chs. 

Hampton,  W. 

Hughes,  Peter, 

Hamilton,  Gen'l.  Alexander, 

Hagardon,  John, 

Hamilton,  James, 

Houston,  Geo.  Smith,  2  copies, 

Howard,  John, 

Hastings,  Hon.  Seth, 

Harris,  Robert,  jun.  2  copies, 

Helfenstein,  Rev.  Samuel, 

Hitchcock,  Daniel, 

Hall,  John, 

Hollinback,  Alexander, 

Hembel,  William, 

Hagenau,  Heinrick, 

Hoilingshead,  Edmond, 

Hovendon,  R.  P. 

Huston,  Mathew, 

Hanna,  Hon.  John  A. 

Henderson,  Angus, 

Hamilton,  Charles, 

Hanson,  Mrs.  Susanna, 

Hukell,  Levi, 

Hiley,  WiUiam, 

Hall,  Ross, 

Hutson,  Thomas, 

Hart,  N.  G. 

Hughes,  Christopher, 

Hairston,  R. 

Habersham,  Richard  W. 

Howard,  Jn.  E. 

Hazard,  Erskein, 

Hanraham,  Waiter, 


Staunton, 

Va. 

Williamsburgh, 

do. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

do. 

do. 

Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

do. 

do. 

1. 

Annapolis, 

Md. 

Baltimore, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Washington  City, 

C.  T. 

Cayuga-Bridge, 

N.Y. 

New-York, 

do. 

Newport, 

R.L 

Columbia  co. 

Ga. 

Augusta, 

do. 

Saundersville, 

do. 

Mendon, 

Ms. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

German  town, 

do. 

Pittsburg, 

do. 

Canonsburg, 

do. 

Wilmington, 

D. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Newark, 

N.J. 

New  Brunswick, 

do. 

Princeton, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Washington, 

N.  C. 

SUBSCRIBERS'    NAMES. 


Hanraham,  W.  jiinr. 

Howard,  J.  H. 

Hall,  Thomas, 

Hunter,  Henry, 

Harris,  James, 

Harris,  Jonathan, 

Hay,  John,  l.  l.  d. 

Husk,  John, 

Hylton,  Daniel, 

Hags,  Geo. 

Heath,  John, 

Hord,  Thomas, 

Holslead,  Richard, 

Harrison,  Edmund, 

Haskens,  Thomas, 

Harrison,  William,  p.  m. 

Hieks,  Thomas, 

Holt,  William  C. 

Harrison,  Wm.  Henry,  govn. 

Hamilton,  Joseph, 


Washington, 

N.  C, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Williamston, 

do. 

Charlotte, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

fayetteville, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Richmond, 

Va. 

do. 

do* 

do. 

do. 

Caroline  co. 

do. 

New-Bridge, 

do. 

Amelia  co. 

do. 

Prince  Edward  co* 

do. 

Genito  Bridge, 

do. 

Bowling-Green, 

do. 

Norfolk, 

do. 

Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

Jeflferson  co. 

T. 

I. 


IngersoU,  Jos.  Reed, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Irwin,  Jared, 

Saunders  ville. 

Ga. 

Irwin,  John, 

Westmoreland  co. 

Pa. 

Irish,  Willaim  B. 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Jones,  Morris, 

J- 

Tanneytown, 

Md. 

Johnson,  Edward, 

Baltimore, 

do. 

Johnson,  Chirstopher, 

do. 

do. 

Johnson,  Samuel, 

Charleston, 

S.  G. 

Johnston,  Lewis,  jun. 

Savannah, 

Ga. 

Jacobs,  W.  S.  M.  D. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

James,  Thomas  C.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

John,  Evangelist, 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Jones,  Arnold  E. 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Johnson,  Thomas  P. 

do. 

do. 

Jones,  David,  m.  d. 

New-Bridge, 

Va. 

Johnson,  Edward, 

Powhatan  co. 

do. 

Jamison,  John,  jun. 

Staunton, 

do. 

Johnston,  G.  Washington,  p 

,M.  Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

Johnson,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Jones,  John  Rice, 

do. 

do. 

Jordan,  Josh.  p.  m. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

VOL.  II. 

Lll 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


K. 

Kirk,  John  R. 

Elkton, 

Md. 

Kearnes,  James  H. 

Washington  City, 

C.  T. 

King,  Kicholas, 

do. 

do. 

Kerr,  William, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Kii'kpatrick,  Jacob, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Kennedy,  William, 

Washington, 

N.  C. 

Keais,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Kinney,  Charles, 

Staunton, 

Va. 

Kuikendall,  Jacob,  m.  d. 

Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

Lockerman,  Richard, 

L. 

Annapolis, 

Md. 

Lloyd,  Edward, 

do. 

do. 

Leclaire,  Lewis,  m.  d. 

Baltimore, 

do. 

Lourcy,  Robert  R. 

do. 

do. 

Lecler,  Francis, 

do. 

do. 

Lewis,  William  Y. 

do. 

do. 

Lincoln,  Hon.  Levi,  2  copies,  Worcester, 

Ms. 

Lillibridge,  Thomas, 

Savannah, 

Ga. 

Lackrider,  Daniel  Wm.  m. 

D.  New  York, 

N   Y. 

Linn,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Livingston,  John  H. 

do. 

do. 

Lee,  Richard, 

do. 

do. 

L'  Hotelier,  E. 

do. 

do. 

Livingston,  John  R. 

do. 

do. 

Livingston,  Brockhurst, 

do. 

do. 

La  Roche,  R.  Dr.  m.  m. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Laval,  John, 

do. 

do, 

Le  Couteulx, 

do. 

do, 

Lynch,  Edward, 

do. 

do, 

Lewis,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Lilly,  Robert, 

do. 

do, 

Logan,  Thomas  F. 

do. 

do. 

Lucas,  Hon.  John  B.  C. 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Luther,  Martin, 

Harrisburg, 

do. 

Luff,  Edward  F. 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Lewis,  Thomas  L. 

do. 

do. 

Landus,  Jn. 

Brandywine, 

do. 

Lee,  Paul  S.  H. 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Lemmon,  G.  P. 

do. 

do. 

Leroy,  L.  S. 

Washington, 

N.  C, 

Lyons,  Peter, 

Hanover, 

Va, 

Lewis,  Francis, 

Powhatan  co. 

do. 

Lomax,  Thomas, 

Port  Royal, 

do 

Lee,  Arthur, 

Norfolk, 

do. 

Lea,  JamcS) 

Cheeks  Cross  Roads, 

T. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 
M. 


Merryman,  Phillmond,, 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

Mann,  Anthony,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Mattson,  Caleb, 

do. 

do. 

Manhorel,  C.  L. 

do. 

do. 

Mitchell,  Joseph, 

do. 

do. 

Mitchell,  Alexander, 

do. 

do. 

M'Cullock,  Andrew, 

do. 

do. 

Murdock,  Addison, 

Georgetown, 

do. 

McLaughlin,  Charles, 

do. 

do. 

Mecklin,  Joseph, 

Washington  city, 

C.  T. 

Merrik,  Pliny, 

Brookfield, 

Ms. 

Malbone,  Rhod. 

Newport, 

R.I. 

Moore,  Hon.  Thomas, 

Spartanburg, 

S.  C. 

Me rri wether,  Hon.  D. 

Augusta, 

Ga. 

Mar  Dent,  Thomas, 

Augusta  CO. 

do. 

Meud,  William  M. 

Augusta, 

do. 

Magnan,  Claudius, 

do. 

do. 

Minter,  Morgan, 

Saundersville, 

do. 

M'Dougall,  Robert,  p.  m. 

do. 

do. 

M'Kinde,  Joseph  P. 

Savannah, 

do. 

Mackay,  R. 

do. 

do. 

Minis,  R. 

do. 

do. 

May,  Ralph, 

do. 

do. 

M'Keen,  Levi,  p.  m. 

Poughkeepsie  co. 

N.  Y. 

Mynderse,  W. 

Cay  uga-B  ride, 

do. 

Marshall,  Samuel, 

New  York, 

do. 

M'Knight,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Martin,  J. 

do- 

do. 

Messchert,  M.  H. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Mackenzie,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Mease,  James,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Monges,  John  A,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

M'Call,  Archibald, 

do. 

do. 

M'CuUy,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Mallon,  James, 

do. 

do. 

M41henney,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Maxwell,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Maxwell,  H. 

do. 

do. 

M'Millan,  William, 

Canonsburgh, 

do. 

M'Law,  Allen, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

McLaughlin,  Peter, 

Lewistown, 

do. 

M'Callmont,  James, 

New-Castle, 

do. 

Maclean,  John,  m,  d. 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Morgan,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Montgomery,  Joseph, 

do. 

do. 

Mo  lie  son,  Joseph, 

B.  Brook, 

do. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Mawht)rten,  Alexander,  d.  d. 
Meroney,  Wm.  B. 
M*Rae,  Duncan,  p.  m. 
M'Ciewan,  Adam, 
Magimsney,  Wm. 
M^Crane,  Samuel, 
M'Rae,  Alexander, 
Murdaugh,  J.  W. 
Murray,  William, 
Muse,  James  W. 
Mosely,  Wm. 
Mitchel,  John, 
Mercer,  Charles  Tenton, 
Minor,  Peter, 
Marchall,  Anthony, 
M'Call,  John, 
Magruder,  Allen  B. 
Mannharpz,  C.  L. 


Neale,  Benedict, 
Norris,  Nicholas, 
Norris,  William, 
Nourse,  Charles  J. 

Nazaret,  m.  d. 

Newell,  Thomas  M. 
Nash,  M. 
Neville,  Fusley, 
Newman,  Thomas, 
Newman,  Daniel, 
Noyan,  Payen, 
New,  Joseph  W. 
Nelson,  Nathaniel,  jun. 
Nicholas,  Philip  Norbornc, 
Nichols,  William, 


O'Hara,  William  C. 

Osborne,  J.  2  copies, 

O'Rielly,  Robert, 

Ott,  John, 

Osborne,  Edwin  Jay,  l.  l.  d. 

Oldham,  Edward, 


Newark, 

do. 

Fayetteville, 

N.  C. 

do. 

do. 

Charlotte, 

do. 

Washington, 

do. 

Richmond, 

Va. 

do. 

do. 

Williamsburgh, 

do. 

Amelia  co. 

do. 

do. 

do, 

Powhatan  co. 

do. 

Fredericksburgh, 

do. 

London  co. 

do. 

Louisa  CO. 

do. 

Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

do. 

do. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Georgetown, 

do. 

Savannah, 

Ga. 

do. 

do. 

New  York, 

N.  Y. 

Pittsburgh, 

Pa. 

Philadelphia, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Bowling-Green, 

Va. 

Williamsburgh,  ' 

do. 

Richmond, 

do. 

Newport, 

R.L 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

New  York, 

N.  Y. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

Georgetown, 

do. 

Fayetteville, 

N.  C. 

Wilmington, 

D. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Priestley,  Joseph,  l.l.d.f.r. 

s.  Northumberland, 

Pa. 

Poree  J.  B. 

Philadelphia, 

do. 

Pearson,  Isaac  L. 

do. 

do. 

Proudfit,  James,  m.  d. 

do. 

do* 

Physick,  Philip,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Pascalis,  Felix,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Pickering,  Elihu, 

do. 

do. 

Phillips,  Z. 

do. 

do. 

Pintard,  Mrs.  Eliza, 

New  York, 

N.Y. 

Proal,  Peter,   10  copies, 

do. 

do. 

Paterson,  M.  B. 

do. 

do. 

Parkman,  R.  B. 

Cayuga  Bridge, 

do. 

Prestman,  William, 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

Potter,  Nathaniel,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Priestley,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Penniman,  E.  8c  W. 

do. 

do. 

Purviance,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Perrigny,  Geo. 

do. 

do. 

Poole,  Edward, 

Annapolis, 

do. 

Peacock,  Robert  W. 

Washington  City, 

C.T. 

Paine,  Hon.  Nathaniel, 

Brookfield, 

Ms. 

Paine,  M.  W.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Peace,  Mrs.  Rebecca, 

Newport, 

R.T. 

Peckman,  Thomas,  ]un. 

do. 

do. 

Petit,  de  Viilers, 

Savannah, 

Ga. 

Posey,  John,  H. 

Saundersvillci 

do. 

Price,  Rev.  William, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Peter,  James, 

Georgetown, 

do. 

Percy,  Thomas  G. 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Paterson,  William, 

New-Brunswick, 

do. 

Peyton,  John. 

Gloucester  House, 

Va. 

Price,  William, 

Richmond, 

do. 

Price,  John  T. 

do. 

do. 

Page,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Pollardy,  Joseph, 

Fredericksburgh, 

do. 

Pratt  John, 

Camden  co. 

do. 

Parrott,  T.  A.  2  copies. 

Natchez, 

N.T. 

Postlethwait,  J. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

Quym,  John, 

Annapolis, 

Md. 

Rowland,  Thomas, 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

Ridgley,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Romain,  Alexis, 

do. 

do. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Rutter,  Thomas, 

Riddell,  Robert, 

Robins,  James  B. 

Rind,  William, 

Richardson,  R. 

Roe,  Alex.  S. 

Rutherford,  John, 

Rogers,  William, 

Robbins,  Asher, 

Richardson,  Jacob,  p.  m.  2  cop. 

Root,  Hon.  Erastus, 

Riidd,  Plieron, 

Remmey,  John, 

Rutgers,  Henry, 

Rodgers,  John, 

Ronalds,  John,  12  copies, 

Rivardi,  Mrs.  Mary, 

Rossetter,  Rev.  John, 

Reynolds,  James,  m.  d. 

Roberts,  Rev.  George, 

Roberjot,  H.  N. 

Roberts,  Georges, 

Reid,  Isaac, 

Rodney,  Hon.  Cxsar  A. 

Riddle,  John. 

Read,  G. 

Read,  G.  jun. 

Robinson,  William  H. 

Rhea,  Jonathan, 

Rutherford,  Robert  W. 

Ralph,  John. 

Ramsay,  John.  W. 

Ridmond,  James, 

Robison,  Robert, 

Rooker,  John, 

Robinson,  John  H. 

Roane,  Spencer, 

S. 

Smith,  Rev.  Samuel  Stanhope, "1 

President  of  the  College  of  [►  Princeton 

New  Jersey,  2  copies, 
Stockton,  Edward, 
Stryker,  Christ.  H. 
Sartory,  Jolm  B. 
Smith,  Miles, 

Stevenson,  m.  d. 

Smith,  James,  m.  d. 


Baltimore. 

Md. 

Elkton, 

do. 

Snow-Hill, 

do. 

Georgetown, 
Savannah, 

do. 
Ga. 

do. 

do. 

Saundersville, 

do. 

Newport, 
do. 

R.I. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Delaware  co. 

N.Y. 

Poughkeepsie  co. 
New  York, 

do. 
do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Philadelphia, 
do. 

Pa. 
do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Pittsburgh, 
Wilmington, 

do. 
D. 

New-Castle, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Princeton, 

N.  J. 

Trenton, 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Washington  City, 
Charleston, 

C.  T. 
S.  C. 

Washington, 
Charlotte, 

N.C. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Staunton, 

Va 

Hanover, 

do' 

N.J. 


do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

Trenton, 

do. 

New  Brunswick, 

do. 

Baltimore, 

Md, 

do. 

do. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Snyder,  John,  m.  d. 

Baltimore, 

Md. 

Salmon,  Geo. 

do. 

do. 

Sewell,  Robert, 

do. 

do. 

Spurrier,  B. 

do. 

do. 

Stirling,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Selshew,  Campbell, 

do. 

do. 

Scott,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Smith,  Hon.  S. 

do. 

do. 

Smith,  John  S. 

do. 

do. 

Smith,  Miss  M.  B. 

do. 

do. 

Spence,  James  R. 

Snow  Hill, 

do- 

Spence, John  S. 

do. 

do. 

Spence,  Pornell  S. 

do. 

do. 

Skinner,  A. 

Columbia, 

do. 

Smith,  William, 

Georgetown, 

do. 

Shepley,  William,  junr. 

Annapolis, 

do. 

Stone,  Robert  C. 

do. 

do. 

Simmons,  William, 

Washington  City, 

C.  T. 

Skinner,  Hon.  T.  J. 

William  ston. 

Ms. 

Harwich, 

do. 

Shrine,  Benjamin, 

Saundersville, 

Ga. 

Smith,  Israel, 

Cayuga-Bridge, 

N.  Y. 

Smith,  Reuben, 

do. 

do. 

Schieffelin,  E.  L. 

New  York, 

do. 

Slocomb,  Geo. 

do. 

do. 

Stevens,  Edward,  m.d.  2copie 

s  Philadelphia. 

Pa. 

Stuart,  James,  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Soullier,  John  M. 

do. 

do. 

Simmons,  James, 

do. 

do. 

Simmons,  John  B. 

do. 

do. 

Shaw,  Thomas, 

do. 

do. 

Shaw,  William,  m,  d. 

do. 

do. 

Shoemaker,  Abraham,  junr. 

do. 

do. 

Shoemaker,  Benjamin, 

do. 

do. 

Staunton,  Rev.  Geo. 

do. 

do. 

Sulger,  Jacob, 

do. 

do. 

Sicard,  A. 

do. 

do. 

Salter,  Samuel, 

do. 

do. 

Smith,  Thos.  Aaron, 

do. 

do. 

Sergeant,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Scull,  John, 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Spear,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Sparr,  Christian, 

Cumberland  co. 

do. 

Sherer,  William, 

New-Castle, 

D. 

Stanford,  Hon.  R. 

Chapel-Hill, 

N.C. 

Stanby,  James, 

Newbei'n, 

do. 

Sims,  John  C. 

Washington, 

do. 

Springs,  John  B. 

Charlotte, 

do. 

SUBSCRIBERS*  NAME^. 


Stelson,  Benjamin, 

Richmond, 

Va. 

Sniith,  Geo.  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Stanard,  Larken, 

Fredericksburgh, 

do. 

Scans,  Wm.  G. 

Bowling-Green, 

do. 

Samuel,  Philip, 

do. 

do. 

Stribling,  Erasmus, 

Staunton, 

do. 

Stuart,  Archibald, 

do. 

do. 

Smith,  Peter, 

'  William sburgh, 

do. 

Scott,  Thomas  B. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

Sandford,  Thomas, 

Cincinnati, 

N.  T. 

Smith,  Hon.  John, 

'Ohio, 

do. 

Simpson,  Patrick, 

Vinncennes, 

do. 

Sevier,  Valentine, 

Greenville, 

T. 

1. 

Teackle,  Litt.  D,  p.  m.  8  copies.  Princess  Anne  co. 

Md. 

Thomas,  E.  A,  20  copies, 

Charleston, 

S.  C. 

Todd,  James  E. 

Columbia  co. 

Ga. 

Tenille,  Francis, 

Saundersville, 

do. 

Trott,  G.  Wm. 

Savannah, 

do. 

Talineau,  F. 

Coosawhatchie, 

do. 

Taylor,  Hon.  John, 

Port  Royal, 

Va. 

Taylor,  Bennett, 

Richmond, 

do. 

Toushee,  Wm. 

do. 

do. 

Tompkins,  Richard, 

Bowling-Green, 

do. 

Tompkins,  Robert,  p.  m. 

do. 

do. 

Tennent,  John, 

Fredericksburgh, 

do. 

Turner,  Reuben, 

Caroline  co. 

do. 

Thornton,  Jolm  A. 

Culpeper  co. 

do. 

Tremper,  L.  p,  m. 

Staunton, 

do. 

Turner,  F.  L. 

Lexington, 

Ky. 

Telfair,  Josiah, 

Savannah, 

Ga. 

Tarascon,  L.  A. 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Thomas,  Jos.  M. 

do. 

do. 

Towers,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Turpin,  Pierre, 

do. 

do. 

Toland,  lienry,  jun. 

do. 

do. 

Thouron,  Peter, 

do. 

do. 

Trevor,  John  B. 

Canonsburgh, 

do. 

Tinniswood,  Samuel, 

Philadelphia, 
V. 

do. 

Vallon,  Louis  C. 

Philadelphia. 

Pa. 

Vanuxem,  James, 

do. 

do. 

\  olozan,  D. 

do. 

do. 

Vernon,  Wm.  H. 

Newport, 

R.  L 

Vaughan,  John,  m.  d, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Vining,  Mrs.  Mary, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

ViUard,  A.  J. 

Washington  city. 

C.  T. 

Van  Ness,  John  P. 

do. 

do. 

Vankleeck,  James  L.  m.  d. 

Poughkeepsie  co. 

N.  Y. 

Vatable,  Mr. 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Vigo,  Francois, 

Vincennes, 

N.  T. 

Vander  Burgh,  Henry, 

do. 
W. 

do. 

Woodberry,  John, 

Annapolis, 

Md. 

Wright,  Robert, 

Chestertown, 

do. 

White,  Joseph, 

Baltimore, 

do. 

Weire,  Charles, 

do. 

do. 

Wilkins,  H.  M.  D. 

do. 

do. 

Way,  Andrew,  jun. 

Washington  city, 

C.  T. 

Wilson,  James,  p.  m. 

Worcester, 

Ms. 

White,  William  C. 

do. 

do. 

Winn,  Hon.  Richard, 

Winnsborough, 

S.  C. 

Ware,  Wm.  F.  p.  m.  2  copies.  Columbia  c.  h. 

Ga. 

Walton,  George, 

Augusta, 

do. 

Walker,  James  Saunders, 

do. 

do. 

Walker,  James, 

Saundersville, 

do. 

Williams,  Thomas  F. 

Savannah, 

do. 

Williams,  Richard, 

do. 

do. 

Wilson,  William, 

do. 

do. 

Whitlock,  Mrs.  Eliza, 

Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Wylie,  Samuel  B. 

do. 

do. 

Wistar,  C.  jun.  m.  d. 

do. 

do. 

Wachsmuth,  John  G. 

do. 

do. 

Waughan,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Wister,  Charles, 

do. 

do. 

Wayne,  C.  P. 

do. 

do. 

Watson,  Thomas, 

do. 

do. 

Woglom,  John,  2  copies, 

do. 

do. 

Walsh,  Mich.  B. 

do. 

do. 

Westbay,  Henry,  p.  m. 

Canonsburgh, 

do. 

Wallace,  John, 

do. 

do. 

Wills,  Butler, 

do. 

do. 

Wright,  David, 

Harrisburgh, 

do. 

Wilkins,  John,  jun. 

Pittsburgh, 

do. 

Work,  John, 

Cumberland  co. 

do. 

Webster,  John, 

Wilmington, 

D. 

Wilson,  James,  2  copies. 

do. 

do. 

Wilson,  William, 

Princeton, 

N.J. 

Wesly,  Richard, 

do. 

do. 

Woolley,  Abr.  N. 

Springfield, 

do. 

Williams,  John, 

Newark, 

do. 

VOL.    II, 

M  m  m 

SUBSCRIBERS'  NAMES. 


Weddigen,  John  C. 

Washington, 

N.  C. 

Wallis,  James, 

Charlotte, 

do. 

Williams,  Wm.C. 

Chesterfield, 

Va. 

Wise,  N. 

Alexandria, 

do. 

Williamson,  Thomas, 

Richmond, 

do. 

Watkins,  Henry  Wm. 

Powhatan  co. 

do. 

Woolfolk,  John  G. 

Bowling-Green, 

do. 

Waugh,  Rev.  Abner,  2 

copies.           do. 

do. 

Waller,  Absalom, 

do. 

do. 

Warwick,  Andrew, 

Williamsburgh,  . 

do. 

White,  William, 

Louisa  CO. 

do. 

Wendel,  David, 

Cheeks  Cross  Roads, 

T. 

Wyly,  Robert, 

Greenville, 

do. 

Wyant,  Christopher, 

Vincerines, 

N.  T. 

Xaupi,  — ', 

X. 

Washington  City, 

C.  T. 

Yarrow,  Thomas, 

Y. 

Christianna, 

D. 

Young,  Thomas,  jun. 

Savannah, 

Ga. 

Zesline,  Joseph, 

Z. 

Philadelphiaj 

P^. 

Zwiney,  Hugh, 

do. 

do. 

6 

3 

9 

9 

29 

23 

32 

8 

C27 

34 

<29 

C36 

35 

21 

44 

7 

49 

10 

55 

10 

66 

24 

79 

19 

106 

22 

132 

5 

133 

21 

158 

11 

192 

5 

231 

5 

251 

14 

279 

9 

310 

22 

325 

37 

331 

4 

375 

17 

383 

26 

389 

10 

390 

C27 
^34 

391 

125 

393 

19 

394 

25 

395 

2 

405 

11 

411 

8 

41§ 

1 

ERRATA  TO  THE  SECOND  VOLUME. 


for  a  read  a.  ^ 

o-e  read  o-e. 

complete  read  complete. 

a  read  as. 

There  are  however  read  There  are. 

moins,  plus  read  plus,  le  plus. 

two  comparatives  read  two  comparatives  and  two 
superlatives. 

modes  read  mode. 

that  read  those. 

la  tiennes  read  la  tienne.  » 

yourelf  read  yourself. 

would  read  should. 

Present  Anterior  Periodical  and  Present  Posterior 
read  Present  Anterior  and  Present  Anterior  Pe- 
riodical. 

coEclum  read  cadum. 

habille  ?  read  habill^  ? 

se  demetre  read  se  d^mettre. 

ill  vend  read  il  vend. 

That  I  may  read  That  I  might. 

maitre  read  maitre 

dessepoir  read  desespoir. 

fach^e  read  f  ach^e. 

am^e  read  ann^e 

roignaumes  read  royaumes. 

should  the  Verb  read  should  the  Verbs, 

mortif(6  read  mortifie. 

prescire  read  prescrire. 

II  a  read  II  a 

vintez  read  vintes. 

yieux  read  yeux. 

temoins  read  t^moins. 

tres  read  tres. 

incredules  read  incredules. 

dejeunant  read  d^jeunant. 

verite  read  verity. 

glorie  read  gloire. 

Grand  Pr^tre  read  Grand  Pretre. 

gaite  read  gaiete. 


'if 


rt\  i,\ 


t,   .-i 


1 


fi 


i 


.«  ■    -■^>^<u 


